# 7: The Age of Science and the Enlightenment
Philosophical Bases of Physical Education and Sport
Adapted from lecture notes by Mechikoff & Estes (1998)
outlines is in part a reproduction and in part a modification and
expansion of original lecture notes by Dr. Steve Estes, California State
Mechikoff, R., & Estes, S. (1998). A history and
philosophy of sport and physical education: From the ancient Greeks to
the present (2nd ed.). Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark.
| The Age of
Science and Enlightenment
| A. The
Age of Science and
Enlightenment was the outcome of a cultural and
political storm caused by the friction between the
Renaissance and the
| B. Science promotes
thought over traditional
| As science takes the front seat
the Western world's
metaphysical views are transformed:
| a. The now and here material takes
precedence over the ideal, spiritual world
b. Enjoying one's life on earth is more important than the life
| C. Politics is less concerned with
religion, more concerned with the lives of people
| D. Medicine, science, and technology
| E. The development of
Scientific instruments (microscopes, telescopes, thermometers, barometers,
hydrometers, more accurate watches, and finer scales) vastly
improved the capacity for objective and rliable data collection from
the material universe.
| F. Scientists view themselves as
philosophers while they are careful to dishtinguish their discipline
| 1. the goal of science was to
improve the human condition as opposed to the medieval view of "suffer
now in exchange of eternal life after death (asceticism)."
II. Common man becomes the main theme of politics
| A. Indivial citizen's rights are
no longer preceded by rights of kings, religion, or the state.
Education now becomes a citizen's right rather than a privilege. The
idea that citizens must be educated is reinforced by the fact that
the work force is in need of an educated citizentry.
vast changes recreational and sporting activities are still popular.
| A. The new found value of the
material life legitimizes play and recreation, but the lasting
effects of the past are still holding it back
|No more is there a need to
appologize about play and/or exercise. The arguments supporting
physical education and sport that were used in the Age of Science
and the Enlightenment are still valid today.
English Civil War
precipitated by the
Declaration of Sport
| A. In 1618
issued the Declaration of Sport against the wishes of politicians
and clergy. B. In 1631 King James' son
Charles I reissued the
Declaration of Sport.
Declaration of Sport
| Sports activities are allowed on
Sundays after church services.
| Sporting activities after church
were strongly protested by
Puritans who argued that Sundays should
be spent in worship.
This Puritan idea known as
The Blue Laws (Printed on blue paper? Not really...) were decrees that prohibited sport activities,
drinking, hunting, dancing, and other "ungodly" activities. In America a number of
Blue Laws were still in effect in the early 1930s.
The Declaration of Sport highlighted the devide among:
Catholics and Protestants
- Nobility and
- King and parliament
|Sport and physical education were more
easily justified as Science and Enlightment Age philosophers came to accept
the material world and the place our bodies occupy in it.
| V. Historical
highlights of the Science and Enlightment Age
| A. Large scale economic downturn in
the 17th century.
|B. Spain was losing its political
influence with her loss of control of the South Atlantic, silver supply.
|C. Depression from 1619 to 1622
| 1. Trade dropped off, unemployment
2. Pool of mercenaries was created, fights in religious wars
Thirty-Years-War (1618-1648) in
Civil Wars (1642-1648) in England
religious wars in France of 1562 and 1594.
American Revolution (1776)
French Revolution (1789)
The Black Death: Bubonic Plague
1. France from 1630-1632 and 1647-1649|
E. Little Ice Age
Little Ice Age" (Window to the Universe)
Little Ice Age" by Michael E Mann, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA (2002)"
F. The philosophies that were developed during this century
reflect these historical conditions.
G. Philosophers of the
Age of Science and the
Jean Jacques Rousseau, author of
Emile: or On education
Francois Voltaire (Francois Marie Arouet (1694 - 1778)
Jacques Diderot, encyclopedist
H. Historical documents
Declaration of Independence
Articles of Confederation
Bill of Rights
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (Approved by the National Assembly of France, August 26, 1789)
| VI. The Scientists
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
1. Italian astronomer and physicist|
Copernican view of the universe places the sun at center of the solar system and replaces the
Aristotlean and Ptolemaic view of earth as being at the center of the solar system.
3. Social impact of this theory significant|
a. Humanity no longer the center of the universe
b. Humanity is considered insignificant relative to the cosmos
c. This view undermines the authority of the Christian church
Inquisition disagrees with Galileo: The view that the sun stands
motionless at the center of the universe is foolish, philosophically false,
heretical, because (it is) contrary to Holy Scripture. The view
that the earth is not the center of the universe and even has a daily rotation
is philosophically false, and at least an erroneous belief.
e. Under pressure from the Inquisition, in 1633 Galileo repudiated the Copernican theory (for an example of the
continuing clash between contemporary Science and Religion read
"Plantinga's Defense of Special Creation" by McMullin, E. (1991, September).
Christian Scholars Review, XXI(1), 55-79. (University of Notre Dame)
Galileo died in seclusion in 1642
g. 1835 works of Galileo removed from the Catholic church's
Index of Prohibited Books.
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
1. Chancellor in England ruled in the absence of the King
2. Contributor to the philosophy of science
3. Argued that governments use science to improve the general welfare of its people
4. Called for the support of colleges, libraries, laboratories, biological gardens,
museums of science and industry, for the better payment of teachers and researchers,
and for the funding of scientific experiments.
5. Developed an organizational scheme of science of what could be learned.
6. Similar to the division of kinesiology into the subdisciplines like exercise
physiology, sport history, motor learning, etc.
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
1. English mathematician and physicist
mechanical theory argued that the universe is a perfect machine.
3. Physicists had to discover the laws that govern the machine.
4. Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, or
Principia, published in 1687.
"Laws of Motion":
Newton's First Law: Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a
right (i.e., straight) line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it.
Newton's Second Law: The change of motion is proportional to the motive force impressed; and
is made in the direction of the right line in which that force is impressed.
Newton's Third Law: To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction; or, the mutual
actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and directed to contrary parts.
| VII. The
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
1. Epitomized the
dualistic approach of mind and body.
a. Argues that knowledge can be created from simple ideas and developed
into more complex ideas
b. knowledge is not valid unless we are absolutely certain of its authenticity.
"building block theory of knowledge," where complex theories
rest on simpler, previous theories.
2. Descartes argued that what the only "true" knowledge is intellectual
since we cannot trust our body or our senses.
3. Important to education a. Implies that the body is less important
than the mind as a way of knowing anything.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
1. Applies Newton to the nature of being.
2. Religious critics branded Hobbes a heretic.
3. States that humans are composed of only one thing: the body.
4. Criticized for being
5. Philosophy that supports the psychology of
Michel de Montaigne (1553-1592)
1. Preceded Descartes and Hobbes
2. Strongly influenced by the humanist movement
3. Argued for the well rounded individual.
A monist: Montaigne argued that the body
has such a tight brotherly
bond with the body that it abandons me at every turn to follow the body
in its need. I take (the mind) aside and flatter it, I work on it, all
for nothing. In vain I try to turn (the mind) aside from this
bond...There is no sprightliness in (the mind's) productions if there is
none in the body at the same time.
Social realist for his emphasis on the development of character,
right habits, manners, morals, and citizenship.
Advocated "manly exercise,"
a. child experienced rougher life in the outdoors. "
It is not enough to fortify his soul; you must also make his muscles
strong... It is not the mind, it is not the body we are training; it is
the man and we must not divide him into two parts. Plato says we should
not fashion one without the other, but make them draw together like two
horses harnessed to a coach. By this saying would it not indicate that
he would rather give more care to the body, believing that the mind is
benefited at the same time?"
VII. The Educators:
A. Accepted the idea that the human body is a natural and important part of a person.
1. Advocate the study of the "real" things of life
Humanist realists used Latin, Greek, and classical literature as a basis for
their educational curriculum (also see Patti Whaley essay about the relationship between human rights and religion
a. add physical education as a means of creating
a well rounded individual
Social realists add social graces and political affairs
Common Sense Realists most radically different
a. argued that students should be taught in their own language
b. should learn useful arts and sciences that are based on scientifically
Francois Rabelais (1483-1553)
1. Humanist realist because of his emphasis on the development of the whole
a. The Life of
Gargantua contrasts Renaissance with revolutionary ideas of his times.
b. called for a program that would facilitate the social, moral, spiritual, and physical aspects of life.
c. physical activities ranged from horsemanship, martial arts, and hunting to ball playing, running, and swimming.
John Milton (1608-1674)
1. English poet and wrote
a. strongly influenced by the
English Civil War, sided with the
Puritans and argued against play.
b. believed that the martial arts should be practiced in
school because they were useful in a time of war
John Locke (1632-1704)
John Locke was trained as a physician and argued for the health of the student through proper diet and exercise.
A social realist, Locke held the Platonic view of "a sound mind in a sound body" (Latin: "Anima Sana In Corpore Sano").
"Man of Business, a Carriage suitable to his Rank and
to be eminent and useful to his Country, according to his Station."
Richard Mulcaster (1530-1611)
1. English schoolmaster, commom sense realist.
2. All people should have an education.
3. Experience was more important than studying or reading
4. Learn one's native language with
Greek or Latin
5. The teaching process should be adapted to the learner
6. Emphasize the student rather than the subject
7. Author of
Positions Concerning the Training Up of Children (1581), which specifically addressed physical education.
a. indoor activities he recommended reading and speaking out loud, talking, laughing, weeping, holding one's breath, dancing, wrestling, fencing, and
b. outdoor activities walking, running, leaping, swimming, riding, hunting,
shooting, and playing ball.
8. May be the father of the modern educational practice of including
sport in the schools.
John Comenius (1592-1671)
A Moravian educator and pastor who held that students should take part in their own education; that subject
matters should be connected; that language should be taught through conversation and cooperative work; that
universal education was prelude to social reform and social justice."
(Source: Dictionary of Critical Sociology -- http://www.public.iastate.edu/~rmazur/dictionary/c.html -- 2-21-04)
- Held similar ideas to those of Mulcaster, but did not include knightly sports as a means of physical
development or recreation.
- Comenius was a common sense realists. He believed that exercise served as a rest from other parts of the
The Education of Women
A. Common sense realists were particularly interested in educating girls, although most
of the realists were interested as well.
1. Educational opportunities for girls limited
a. Many believed that women would never have an opportunity to use the
skills they would develop.
women were considered inferior
c. some debate as to whether or not girls could be educated at all.
D. Realists laid the foundation for the public education of girls and women during a
time when women were educated only in the home or in the convent