that can be used to make accurate inferences about the person carrying the phone, their environment, and social events.
Scaling - it is difficult to scale to a large number of people because each person has different everyday environments.Robustness – physical phone location matters, is the person carrying the phone in hand, is the phone in the pocket, or is it in the backpack? All of these will affect the sound received by the microphone differently.Device integration – algorithms must be simple enough not to require a lot of computing power and resources, they must not hinder phone’s primary function, they must also safeguard the privacy of the user.
RMS is a quadratic mean of a continuous time waveform. Frame admission is done on the basis of energy level and spectral entropy. Low energy level indicates silence or undesirable phone context, which prevents meaningful classification.Spectral entropy gives cues about the frequency pattern of the sound. A flat spectrum (silence or white noise) results in high entropy. A low value indicates a strong pattern in the spectrum.Entropy helps differentiate “informative low volume” samples from the non-informative ones.Two thresholds – rms_threshold and entropy_threshold are used for frame admission control. If the frame fails both of this criteria it is discarded.
Feature extraction limitation – clipping at 8kHz
The models are way too complex to get into any detail. Essentially these are machine learning / pattern recognition type models that in this case help us classify sounds based on the extracted features.
MFCC Provides fine details in the frequent bands to which human ear is most sensitive, while also capturing coarser information over the other spectral ranges.MFCC based algorithm is unsupervised and is processed on the go.MFCC Provides fine details in the frequency bands to which human ear is most sensitive, while also capturing coarser information over the other spectral ranges.
Mel-scaling and smoothing – this step is used to emphasize perceptually meaningful frequencies. This is achieved by collecting (say) 256 spectral components into (say) 40 frequency bins. Although one would expect these bins to be equally spaced in frequency, it has been found that for speech, the lower frequencies are perceptually more important than higher frequencies. Therefore the bin spacing follows the so-called “Mel” frequency scale.Spectral components are averaged over Mel-spaced bins to produce a smoother spectrum.Discrete cosine transform is used to “clean up” the signal, and finally MFCC features are obtained.
Introduction<br />Today’s mobile phones come with various embedded sensors such as GPS, WiFi, compass, etc.<br />Arguably, one of the most overlooked sensors, available on every device, is the microphone.<br />Sound captured by a mobile phone’s microphone can be a rich source of information.<br />
Introduction<br />From the captured sound various inferences can be made about the person carrying the phone.<br /><ul><li>Conversation detection
Scaling<br />People live in different environments, containing a wide variety of everyday sounds.<br />Typically, sounds encountered by a student will be different from those encountered by a truck driver.<br />It is no feasible to collect every possible sound and classify it. <br />
Robustness<br />People carry phones in a number of different ways; for example, in the pocket, on a belt, in a bag.<br />Location of the phone with respect to the body presents various challenges because in the same environment sound levels will vary based on the phone’s location.<br />
Robustness<br />Phone context alters the volume:<br /><ul><li>A – in hand of a user facing source
C – in hand of a user facing away from the source
D in pocket of a user facing away from the source</li></li></ul><li>Device Integration<br />Algorithms that perform sound sensing must be integrated in a way not to hinder phone’s primary function.<br />Algorithms must be simple enough to run on a mobile device.<br />Captured audio data may be privacy sensitive, so user privacy must be protected.<br />
SoundSense<br />SoundSense– scalable sound sensing framework for mobile phones.<br />It is the first general purpose sound event classification system designed specifically to address scaling, robustness, and device integration.<br />
Sensing and Preprocessing<br />Audio stream is segmented into uniform frames.<br />Frame admission control is required since frames may or may not contain “interesting” audio content.<br />Uninteresting audio content can be white noise, silence, or insufficient amount of signal captured. How is this determined?<br />
Sensing and Preprocessing<br />Determining “interesting” audio content.<br />
Feature Extraction - ZCR<br />Zero Crossing Rate – is a number of time domain crossings within a frame.<br />Human voice consists of voiced and unvoiced sounds.<br />Voiced frames – high ZCR value.<br />Unvoiced frames – low ZCR values.<br />Human voice will have high ZCR variation.<br />Typically music does not have high ZCR variation<br />
Feature Extraction – Low Energy Frame Rate <br />Low Energy Frame Rate – number of frames within a frame window that have an RMS value less than 50% of the mean RMS for the entire window.<br />Because human voice has voiced and unvoiced frames, this feature will he higher for speech than for music and constant noise.<br />
Feature Extraction – Spectral Flux<br />Spectral flux – measure how quickly the spectrum of the signal is changing.<br />Calculated by comparing the power spectrum for one frame against the power spectrum from the previous frame.<br />Speech generally switches quickly between voiced and unvoiced frames, resulting in a higher SF value.<br />
Feature Extraction – Spectral Rolloff<br />Spectral Rolloff is a measure of the skewedness of the spectral distribution.<br />Right skewed (higher frequency) distribution will have higher spectral rolloff values.<br />Music will typically have high spectral rolloff values<br />
Feature Extraction – Spectral Centroid<br />Spectral Centroid indicates where the “center of mass” of the spectrum is.<br />Music usually involves high frequency sounds which means it will have higher spectral centroid values.<br />
Feature Extraction – Bandwidth<br />Bandwidth – range of frequencies that the signal occupies.<br />In this case, it shows if the spectrum is concentrated around the spectral centroid or spread out over the whole spectrum.<br />Most ambient sound consists of a limited range of frequencies.<br />Music often consists of a broader mixture of frequencies than voice and ambient sound.<br />
Feature Extraction – Normalized Weighted Phase Deviation<br />Normalized Weighted Phase Deviation – shows the phase deviations of the frequency bins.<br />Usually ambient sound and music will have a smaller phase deviation than voice.<br />
Feature Extraction – Relative Spectral Entropy<br />Relative spectral entropy - differentiates speech and other sounds.<br />
Decision tree classification<br />Extracted featured are then fed to one of the following models:<br />Gaussian Mixture Model<br />K-Nearest Neighbors<br />Hidden Markov Model<br />Essentially these are machine learning / pattern recognition type models that in this case help us classify sounds (as voice, music, or ambient sound) based on the extracted features.<br />All three models yielded about 80% classification accuracy.<br />
2 - speech</li></li></ul><li>Markov Recognizer<br />Contains Markov models for each of the three categories.<br />The models were trained to learn pair-wise transition probabilities.<br />A sample output from classifier is fed directly to the Markov models to calculate the maximum probability for a particular sound event.<br />
Unsupervised Adaptive Classification<br />Unsupervised Adaptive Classification components copes with all ambient sound events.<br />The objective of this component is to discover over time environmental sounds that are significant in every day life in addition to voice and music.<br />
Mel Frequency Cepstral Coefficient (MFCC)<br />Waveform<br />Convert to Frames<br />DFFT<br />Take Log of amplitude spectrum<br />Mel-scaling and smoothing<br />Discrete Cosine Transform<br />MFCC Features<br />
Unsupervised Adaptive Classification<br />Once the event is classified as ambient sound, UAC algorithm starts to run.<br />UAC algorithm extracts MFCC features of the sound event.<br />System checks if the event has already been classified.<br />If not then user is asked to label the unknown sound event.<br />System can store up to 100 of these events.<br />
Implementation<br />SoundSense prototype is implemented as a self sustained piece of software that runs on the Apple iPhone.<br />Contains approximately 5,500 lines of code.<br />Written mostly in C/C++ and then implemented in Objective C.<br />Complete package is about 300KB.<br />
Evaluation<br />In the quiet environment , the system adopts a long duty cycle, the CPU usage is less than 5%.<br />Once acoustic processing starts CPU usage increases to about 25%.<br />Maximum memory usage (with all bins being used) is about 5MB.<br />
Evaluation<br /><ul><li>Ambient sound, music, and speech classification accuracy:
Unsupervised Adaptive Classification accuracy:</li></li></ul><li>Evaluation<br />Participant’s activities recognized by SoundSense on a Friday<br />
Evaluation<br />SoundSense in everyday life<br />http://metrosense.cs.dartmouth.edu/projects.html<br />
Conclusions<br />SoundSense is light-weight scalable framework capable of recognizing a broad set of sound events.<br />In contrast to traditional audio context recognition systems that are offline, SoundSense performs online classification at a lower computational cost and yields results that are comparable to the offline systems.<br />