This application is a continuation of International Application No. PCT/US10/32288, filed on Apr. 23, 2010 which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/172,141, filed Apr. 23, 2009, both of which are incorporated herein by reference.
Boron has a volumetric heat of combustion (i.e., energy density) more than three times that of the best practical hydrocarbon fuels, and is one of the few materials where both volumetric and gravimetric energy densities are well above those for hydrocarbons. For this reason, there has been research for decades aimed at using boron or boron-rich materials as a fuel or fuel additive in liquid or solid-fueled propulsion systems. Boron's potential as a fuel has not, to date, been realized, partly due to the difficulty in igniting and burning it efficiently. One problem is that boron is quite refractory (Tvap=2800K), thus combustion depends on heterogeneous reactions, which tend to be slow and diffusion limited. This limitation can be mitigated, at least in principle, by using nanoparticulate boron, leading to large surface-area-to-volume ratios, as suggested by a number of previous researchers. A limitation to this approach is that boron exposed to air forms a passivating native oxide layer that inhibits oxidation. Furthermore, as the particle size decreases, this oxide makes up an increasing fraction of the particle mass, and thus reduces the energy density.
There have been a number of previous reports of boron nanoparticle production using methods such as gas phase pyrolysis of diborane or solution-based synthesis routes that involve several steps. There also have been several approaches reported to coating boron particles with passivating overlayers, aimed at preventing air-oxidation, and thus enhancing ignition and combustion. Glycidyl azide polymer (GAP) has been used to coat boron particles. However it was shown in these studies that the GAP coating interacts with the boron through its native surface oxide layer; the boron particles used were already oxidized. Slurry fuels have been produced containing liquid hydrocarbon based fuels, boron and a fluoropolymer. In some cases they also included polyolefin amide alkeneamine surfactant in the slurry. In each case, the surfaces have an oxide layer that interacts with the surfactants.
- Top of Page
In light of the problems and deficiencies noted above, air-stable coated particles which include an oxidizable core having an organic ligand coating substantially encompassing the oxidizable core are disclosed. The coated particles can also be substantially free of an oxide layer, especially oxide layers around the oxidizable core. As such, the organic ligand coating acts as a protective or passivating coating.
The air-stable coated particles can be formed via a particle size reduction process. In particular, an oxidizable particulate can be crushed in the presence of an organic ligand in a non-oxidizing environment. The air-stable coated particles can be incorporated into a variety of materials, e.g. pyrotechnics and biomedical applications. With the addition of the coated particles dispersed in such materials an enhanced fuel can be formed with increase energy release per weight of the fuel.
In addition to a passivating effect of the ligand coating, by varying the organic ligand, the dispersability of the particles in different media can be adjusted. For example, if an organic ligand is used that has a hydrocarbon “tail” that is exposed on the particle surface, this enhances dispersability in hydrocarbons (e.g. fuels). If a ligand is used that exposes polar functional groups on the particle surface, then dispersability is enhanced for polar media (e.g. aqueous dispersions, polar binders).
There has thus been outlined, rather broadly, the more important features of the invention so that the detailed description thereof that follows may be better understood, and so that the present contribution to the art may be better appreciated. Other features of the present invention will become clearer from the following detailed description of the invention, taken with the accompanying drawings and claims, or may be learned by the practice of the invention.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
- Top of Page
The present invention will become more fully apparent from the following description and appended claims, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. It is to be understood that these drawings merely depict exemplary embodiments of the present invention and they are, therefore, not to be considered limiting of its scope. It will be readily appreciated that the components of the present invention, as generally described and illustrated in the figures herein, could be arranged, sized, and designed in a wide variety of different configurations. Nonetheless, the invention will be described and explained with additional specificity and detail through the use of the accompanying drawings in which:
FIG. 1A-1D are SEM images at 50 k times magnification, 1 μm scale bar: (a) un-milled boron feedstock; (b) dry milled boron; (c) boron wet milled in hexanes; and (d) boron wet milled with oleic acid surfactant.
FIG. 2 shows DLS results of oleic acid capped boron. (Top) Number weighted, (bottom) mass weighted.
FIG. 3 shows DLS results of oleic acid capped boron following separation.
FIG. 4 is an SEM image of oleic acid capped boron following separation.
FIG. 5 is a B 1 s XPS regional spectra for un-milled, dry milled, wet milled, and milled with oleic acid.
FIG. 6 is a graph of DLS size distribution of ceria coated boron functionalized with oleic acid (peaked at 66 nm).
FIG. 7 is a B 1 s spectra taken from boron powders that were milled dry with ceria.
FIG. 8 is an STEM image of a typical ˜50 nm primary (i.e., non-aggregated) particle produced by dry-milling of boron with as-received ceria for 6 hours.
FIG. 9 is an additional STEM/HAADF image of ceria coated boron particles.
- Top of Page
The following detailed description of exemplary embodiments makes reference to the accompanying drawings, which form a part hereof and in which are shown, by way of illustration, exemplary embodiments in which the invention may be practiced. While these exemplary embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice the invention, it should be understood that other embodiments may be realized and that various changes may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. Thus, the following more detailed description is not intended to limit the scope of the invention, as claimed, but is presented for purposes of illustration only and not limitation to describe the features and characteristics of the present invention, to set forth the best mode of operation of the invention, and to sufficiently enable one skilled in the art to practice the invention.
In describing and claiming the present invention, the following terminology will be used.
The singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a nanoparticle” includes reference to one or more of such materials and reference to “crushing” refers to one or more such steps.
As used herein with respect to an identified property or circumstance, “substantially” refers to a degree of deviation that is sufficiently small so as to not measurably detract from the identified property or circumstance. The exact degree of deviation allowable may in some cases depend on the specific context.
As used herein, “air-stable” refers to a material which is not quickly oxidized upon exposure to air or oxygen. Although some air-stable materials are stable indefinitely, most will have an extended stability of several hours to weeks. The core materials in the particles tend to oxidize within several seconds to several minutes of exposure to air, sometimes explosively, depending on the particle size, if not protected by a passivating layer. In contrast, an air-stable material is one which does not immediately oxidize but has an extended air stability.
As used herein, “encompass” refers to surrounding a particle although a continuous layer is not required. In many cases the organic ligand coating will be substantially continuous; however, this is not required as long as oxidizing species are blocked from contacting the oxidizable core.
As used herein, “nanoparticle” refers to a particle having a size less than 1 μm and generally less than about 500 nm.
As used herein, “rich” is a modifier used in associated with an element such as, but not limited to, boron or aluminum, to indicate such an element is the dominant component. For example, a material which is boron rich has a dominant portion of boron, e.g. greater than 50 atom %.
As used herein, “soluble” and “solution” refer to either a true solution of one molecule in a solvent of a different molecule, or to a stable suspension or dispersion of particles in a solvent or other media. An example of the first scenario is a solution of oleic acid in hexanes. This use of “soluble” and “solution” follows the conventional definition of a homogeneous mixture of one material with another. An example of the second scenario is a solution of nanometer boron particles in hexanes. This use of “soluble” and “solution” follow common use in the colloidal nanoparticle field, where the meaning is more akin to forming a stable suspension or dispersion of particles of one material in a solvent.
As used herein, a plurality of items, structural elements, compositional elements, and/or materials may be presented in a common list for convenience. However, these lists should be construed as though each member of the list is individually identified as a separate and unique member. Thus, no individual member of such list should be construed as a de facto equivalent of any other member of the same list solely based on their presentation in a common group without indications to the contrary.
Concentrations, amounts, and other numerical data may be presented herein in a range format. It is to be understood that such range format is used merely for convenience and brevity and should be interpreted flexibly to include not only the numerical values explicitly recited as the limits of the range, but also to include all the individual numerical values or sub-ranges encompassed within that range as if each numerical value and sub-range is explicitly recited. For example, a numerical range of about 1 to about 4.5 should be interpreted to include not only the explicitly recited limits of 1 to about 4.5, but also to include individual numerals such as 2, 3, 4, and sub-ranges such as 1 to 3, 2 to 4, etc. The same principle applies to ranges reciting only one numerical value, such as “less than about 4.5,” which should be interpreted to include all of the above-recited values and ranges. Further, such an interpretation should apply regardless of the breadth of the range or the characteristic being described.
Any steps recited in any method or process claims may be executed in any order and are not limited to the order presented in the claims. Means-plus-function or step-plus-function limitations will only be employed where for a specific claim limitation all of the following conditions are present in that limitation: a) “means for” or “step for” is expressly recited; and b) a corresponding function is expressly recited. The structure, material or acts that support the means-plus function are expressly recited in the description herein. Accordingly, the scope of the invention should be determined solely by the appended claims and their legal equivalents, rather than by the descriptions and examples given herein.
Air-Stable Coated Particles
Air-stable coated particles which include an oxidizable core having an organic ligand coating substantially encompassing the oxidizable core are disclosed. The oxidizable core can comprise an oxidizable material. The coated particles can also be substantially free of an oxide layer, especially oxide layers around the oxidizable core. As such, the organic ligand coating acts as a protective or passivating coating.
The oxidizable core can be formed of almost any oxidizable material. Non-limiting examples of such materials can include boron, aluminum, magnesium, silicon, titanium, germanium, bismuth, compounds thereof, mixtures thereof, and the like. However, of particular interest are high energy density materials such as boron, aluminum, magnesium, and compounds thereof, such as boron carbide, or materials (e.g. aluminum, magnesium, bismuth or other metals) that might be added to modify combustion or optical emission properties. In one specific aspect, the oxidizable core consists essentially of boron. In another aspect, the oxidizable core can comprise a boron rich compound such as boron carbide or boron nitride. In one specific aspect, the oxidizable core can comprise an aluminum rich compound such as aluminum carbide.
Although the core can be almost any size, for combustion particle diameters less than about 5 micrometer such as from about 10 nm to about 500 nm can be suitable. In some aspects, the core can be micron sized, e.g. about 1 μm to about 5 μm, although in other aspects the particles can be nanoparticles. Diameters from about 10 nm to about 200 nm can be particularly useful when the coated nanoparticles are used as additives to jet fuels or in solid propellants.
The organic ligand coating can be formed of a wide variety of compounds which can be attached to the oxidizable core (and optionally catalyst material bonded thereto). Although not always required, the organic ligand can typically be covalently attached to the oxidizable core. In one aspect, the organic ligand coating can be non-polar. Further, it is often desirable for the organic ligand coating to provide for solubility in a particular fuel composition, whether a liquid or solid fuel. For example, the organic ligand can have a hydrophobic moiety on a free end such that the coated particles are soluble in hydrocarbon solvents and/or fuels. Although other organic ligands can be suitable, non-limiting examples can include oleic acid, stearic acid, maleic acid, linoleic acid, behenic acid, sodium dodecyl sulfate, alkyl amines, tri-octyl phosphate, and combinations thereof. In one aspect, the organic ligand is oleic acid. In another aspect, the organic ligand can be a fluorocarbon ligand. Fluorocarbon compounds can be desirable in order to reduce or eliminate formation of hydrogen-boron compounds such as HOBO during combustion so as to strongly favor formation of B2O3 and boron fluoride compounds which result in a higher combustion energy. Thus, in one specific aspect, the organic ligand can be perfluorotetradecanoic acid or perfluorooleic acid. The use of perfluoro or highly fluorinated compounds can be particularly suitable for use with solid propellants. Alternatively, the organic ligand coating can be polar. Such polar ligands can provide for solubility in polar materials such as, but not limited to, water, ionic liquids, polymers and/or polar solvents. Non-limiting examples of suitable polar ligands can include organic amines, alcohols, nitriles, amides, sulfonates, ionic liquids and combinations or polymers thereof. In one aspect, the coated particles can be dispersible in rocket propellants. As such, solubility in propellant binders (e.g. PE, GAP, PU, PPG, etc) can often be desirable.
In some aspects, it can be desirable to include a catalyst material with the oxidizable material. Such catalyst material can be provided as a distinct particulate material dispersed within a fuel. However, in some cases it can also be beneficial to incorporate the catalyst material into the coated particle. Thus, in one specific aspect, the particle can include at least one combustion catalyst island on the oxidizable core between the organic ligand and the oxidizable core. Typically, during formation the catalyst material can attach or deposit onto the outer surface of the oxidizable core in discrete islands. The organic ligand coating then encompasses and surrounds both the core and the attached catalyst islands. Non-limiting examples of suitable combustion catalyst include cerium oxide, palladium oxide, tin oxide, manganese oxide, yttrium oxide, iron oxide, cobalt oxide, palladium, platinum, nickel, other metals or rare earths, and composites, intermetallics, alloys thereof, and combinations thereof. In one aspect, the combustion catalyst is cerium oxide. Other surface chemistry modifiers can also be used such as, but not limited to, alkali, alkaline earth metals. The air-stable coated particles can be formed via a particle size reduction process.
In particular, an oxidizable particulate can be crushed in the presence of an organic ligand. In one embodiment, the ligand molecule has one or more functional groups that tend to react and bond with the surface of the particle material. The crushing process is performed in a nitrogen or other inert atmosphere to give the organic ligand a chance to bond to, and coat the surfaces before they are exposed to air or other oxidizing environment. In other cases, particularly when it is desired to cap the particles with a ligand that exposes functional groups on the exterior that might tend to react with the particle surface, a two step capping process may be used. In such a process, the particles are crushed in the presence of one ligand, and then the capped particles are further coated or capped by a second ligand that is chemically grafted or bonded to the first ligand. Another option is a dative covalent bonding where both electrons forming the bond comes from a single atom in the ligand, e.g nitrogen. When the ligand coated particles are subsequently exposed to air, they do not oxidize. The oxidizable particulate is comminuted sufficient to form particulate oxidizable core which is substantially coated by the organic ligand to form the air-stable coated particles. The process conditions are maintained such that the organic ligand substantially preempts formation of an oxide layer on the oxidizable core. The presence of the organic ligand and an optional wetting agent prevents oxygen contact with newly fractured particles. Thus, as the crushing occurs, fresh non-oxidized surfaces are exposed and immediately contacted with the organic ligand and/or wetting agent rather than undesired oxygen or oxygen-containing compounds. As a result, substantially the only oxide in the particles are the native oxide from surfaces of the original uncrushed particle which typically makes up a small fraction of the core surfaces (e.g. typically less than about 5%, and in some cases less than about 0.1%, depending on the degree of crushing involved). For example, a 10 μm starting particle with a native oxide layer crushed to 100 nm results in a diameter reduction factor of 100, and a surface area reduction of 10,000. Some small degree of native oxide is typically present and often unavoidable. However, the amount of such native oxide is substantially smaller than that which would form on unprotected particles, and may be undetectable by XPS.
The crushing can be accomplished using any method which reduces the particle size while allowing for simultaneous contact with the organic ligand. Alternatively, crushing can be performed under a non-oxidizing environment (e.g. solvent or inert gas) and the crushed material subsequently placed in contact with the ligand. Non-limiting examples of suitable crushing techniques include ball milling, planar milling, roll milling, ultrasonic milling, or combinations thereof. In one aspect, the step of crushing is accomplished by ball milling. Milling can be done as a wet process or dry process. In one specific aspect, the step of crushing is a wet milling process which involves using a wetting agent in which the organic ligand is substantially soluble. The wetting agent can have a multi-purpose of solubilizing the organic liquid and acting as a carrier, as well as providing a medium to prevent agglomeration or caking of the milled particles, and provide a barrier to oxygen-containing compounds while the organic liquid is coating the crushed particles. Generally, the wetting agent can be free of oxygen or at least free of reactive oxygen which could form oxide at the core surface. Although not required it can be beneficial to chose a wetting agent which has the same composition as an intended final liquid product, e.g. jet fuel. This can eliminate the need for later cleaning or solvent removal processes. Non-limiting examples of suitable wetting agents can include organic molecules that do not have substituents that might react with the core material, such as hexane, jet fuel, dodecane, straight chain and branched alkanes and alkenes, short and long chain nitriles, aromatic molecules with no reactive substituents, acrylonitrile, amines, and the like.
Regardless of the specific crushing approach, in each case the starting material is substantially larger than the final oxidizable core size. Thus, the coated particles are formed by size reduction rather than by deposition or assembly processes. In one aspect, the oxidizable particulate has an average starting diameter from about 500 nm to about 1.5 μm. Although other ranges can be suitable, the step of crushing can in some cases be sufficient to form coated particles having an average diameter from about 30 nm to about 100 nm. At large scale production for example, an oxidized boron starting powder greater than 10 microns can be used so that the oxide coverage deriving from the native oxide coating on the starting powder would be <0.1% in the final nanopowder. However, specific starting materials can be varied and optimized for particular processing equipment and final product specifications. Typically, any native oxide layer is only a few nm thick.
As previously indicated, a combustion catalyst can be optionally integrated into the particle. This can be accomplished by including a particulate combustion catalyst during crushing. Alternatively, the combustion catalyst can be dry or wet milled with the oxidizable core material. Such milling allows the catalyst to deposit and adhere to outer surfaces of the core material to form a composite particulate. Subsequent crushing in contact with the ligand allows the ligand to coat around the composite particulates. In this manner, the composite particle is formed having at least one combustion catalyst island on the oxidizable core between the oxidizable core and the organic ligand. This same intermediate milling can be used with other surface modifiers prior to contact with the ligand material.
Depending on the purity and composition of the starting materials, milling equipment, and process conditions additional purification steps can be optionally applied to the coated particles to remove undesired elements. The desired degree of purity will, of course, depend on the intended application. For example, a high performance, high energy density jet fuel may require substantially no impurities while flare or other pyrotechnic applications can tolerate more impurities. Purifying can involve the use of magnetic cleaning to remove magnetic impurities, e.g. particles of Fe or tungsten carbide from milling media, etc. Similarly, washing and drying can be used to remove excess wetting agent, excess organic ligands, and the like. Sedimentation can also be used to allow aggregates to settle from suspended particulates and solvent and/or wetting agent. An initial milling followed by separation may be used to remove surface contaminants, including native oxide, from the surface of contaminated or oxidized starting material. In one alternative, low-quality contaminated boron or other core material can be milled in the presence of a solvent and ligand. Many contaminants are soluble in hexane or other solvents under these conditions such that the milling and contact with the ligand can often also result in removal of impurities from the starting particulate materials. The air-stable coated particles can be incorporated into a variety of fuel or pyrotechnic materials. With the addition of the coated particles dispersed in such materials an enhanced fuel can be formed with increased energy release per weight of the fuel. Non-limiting examples of such materials can include jet fuels, flares, solid propellants, liquid rocket fuels, and the like. In one aspect, the fuel is jet fuel. In another aspect, the fuel is a solid propellant. Other applications for these air-stable coated particles can include neutron capture therapy (e.g. using B10 tagged with a tumor binding ligand).
Oleic Acid Coated Boron
Elemental boron has one of the highest volumetric heats of combustion known (˜136 MJ/liter) which is almost twice that of aluminum (˜81 MJ/liter) and three to four times that of typical jet fuels (˜34-39 MJ/liter), and is therefore of interest as a high energy density fuel. Combustion of boron is inherently a heterogeneous process, due to the high vaporization temperature, and the presence of a native oxide layer which significantly inhibits combustion.
A simple one-step process for generating air-stable boron nanoparticles that are largely un-oxidized, and also soluble in hydrocarbons is described in a particular example as follows. Ball milling can be used to produce ˜50 nm particles that are capped with oleic acid ligands. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS) were used to investigate size distributions, with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) verifying the protective role of the oleic acid ligand. The process is fast, inexpensive, and easily scalable to large volume production.
This approach allows production of air-stable boron nanoparticles with controlled size, and with no detectable boron oxide layer. Practical preparation methods for propulsion fuels must generate materials on large scales, and at low cost. This method is based on high energy ball milling, and is simple, inexpensive, and easily scalable to large batches as needed. In one step, micron scale boron power is crushed to nano-scale powder, rendered air-stable by an organic ligand coating, and rendered dispersible in hydrocarbons. The latter property is relevant to use of the particles as additives to conventional liquid fuels, and can be helpful in blending solid propellants or pyrotechnics, as well. By changing surfactants (e.g. organic ligands), the method can be applicable to a wide variety of materials, and to aqueous solutions for biological applications, such as boron neutron capture therapy.
Commercially obtained boron (Sigma-Aldrich, average diameter 800 nm) was used as raw feedstock for milling, which was carried out in a Spex-CertiPrep® 8000M mixer mill using both stainless steel and tungsten carbide milling jars, and ⅛″ diameter balls of either tungsten carbide or stainless steel. The charge ratio (ratio of ball to powder mass) was kept high at 80:1. This helped facilitate shorter milling times by increasing the number of collisions per unit time and allowing for more energy transfer to break up particles. During a typical milling, 2 g of boron was loaded into a 37 cm3 milling jar. In some experiments the powder was milled dry, but in most cases, liquid hydrocarbon (JP-5 jet fuel or hexane) was added to the milling mixture. The milling jars used were modified from the stock geometry to eliminate corners and cracks at the seals where powder might be inaccessible to the milling balls.
The boron was kept in a nitrogen atmosphere before, during, and after milling. No evidence of boron nitride formation was observed. In most experiments the milled nanopowder was brought into contact with air prior to analysis in order to observe air-stability. It should be emphasized that caution must be exercised when exposing freshly milled unpassivated boron nanoparticles to air because small particles can be pyrophoric, i.e., air oxidation can lead to thermal runaway and particle ignition. Auto-ignition of dry, sub-50 nm particles in air, and detonation was observed when a small sample of such particles was exposed to pure O2. Ligand-protected particles are air-stable, as shown below, but for safety all milling products were treated as potentially pyrophoric. The particles were slowly exposed to increasing oxygen concentrations, and eventually pure oxygen, to guarantee that they are air-stable. For all wet-milled samples, this was done by bubbling a variable N2/O2 mixture through a suspension of the particles in hexanes. Some dry-milled particles were treated this way as well, and some were exposed dry.
Most particle production was carried out wet, with ˜15 ml of either hexanes or JP-5 jet fuel added to the mix. Wet milling prevents caking of the milled powder, makes sample recovery and clean-up easier, and reduces the milling time for a given particle size by about ˜50%. Wet milling can sometimes introduce contaminants into the milled products, mostly coming from the wear of the milling jar and balls by the relatively abrasive boron powder. In dry milling, it has been suggested that the powder tends to coat the milling surfaces early in the milling process, reducing wear on the surfaces that generates contamination. As expected, the harder and denser tungsten carbide milling balls and jar resulted in faster size reduction than stainless steel, which was used in some studies in an effort to determine the source of some contaminants.
To generate ligand-protected boron nanoparticles, 1 mL of oleic acid (CH3(CH2)7CH═CH(CH2)7COOH—Sigma-Aldrich) was added to the boron/hydrocarbon mixture prior to milling. The idea is that fresh boron surfaces generated by milling, react with the acid end of the oleic acid forming B—O—C bonds, thereby anchoring the hydrocarbon tail to the boron surface. Some experiments were carried out using sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) to coat and solubilize the boron particles, with results similar to those with oleic acid. Because detergent surfactants interfere with demulsifying ship-board fuels, and sulfur in fuels is a pollution source, the experiments described below were done with oleic acid as the solubilizing ligand.
The amount of oleic acid used is in excess of that required to coat the nanoparticle surfaces. For fuel uses, this small excess of oleic acid would probably not be significant, however, for the purposes of particle surface characterization, excess oleic acid was removed with the following procedure: After milling, the hydrocarbon (hexanes) in the boron/oleic acid/hydrocarbon mixture was allowed to evaporate. This can be done by slowly introducing oxygen in a bubble reactor to avoid autoignition (e.g. bubbling a variable N2/O2 mixture through the particles starting with a low oxygen content and ramping up to pure oxygen). Subsequent processing was done is air.
The resulting boron/oleic acid paste was then dispersed in reagent grade methanol (Mallinckrodt, 99.9%), then centrifuged. Free oleic acid is soluble in methanol, and thus left in solution when the particles are centrifuged out. The washed particles are still soluble in hydrocarbon solvent (and JP-5), indicating that they retained the oleic acid coating. The washed particles can be dispersed in hexane or other hydrocarbons by ultrasonication, with mild centrifugation to remove any remaining aggregates. These dispersions are stable for months.
Characterization of particle surfaces was carried out using x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), in ultra-high vacuum. For wet-milled samples, a few drops of hydrocarbon solution containing boron or oleic acid-functionalized boron was pipetted onto a stainless steel shim and allowed to evaporate, leaving behind dry boron powder. The process was repeated until a continuous coating was obtained. A continuous coating is important so as not to detect photoelectrons from elements present in the underlying stainless steel. Visual inspection under a light microscope was used to examine the coverage, and complete coverage was verified by the absence of photoelectron peaks from Fe, Cr, and Ni. (Samples milled with stainless steel jars and/or balls showed some contamination from abraded steel, as discussed below) The coated shims were dried in a vacuum oven at 70° C. for two hours to evaporate any remaining volatile hydrocarbons. For samples that were milled with oleic acid, the drying time was increased to 12 or more hours, to drive off any excess oleic acid that remained after the methanol washing process. Aside from a few experiments where samples were transferred in inert atmosphere, all samples were exposed to the ambient atmosphere prior to XPS analysis, and there is substantial additional exposure to atmosphere in the low vacuum (˜10 Torr) drying oven.
X-ray photoelectron spectra were collected using the monochromatic Al Kα source (1486.7 eV) on a Kratos Axis Ultra DLD instrument. In order to maintain a reasonable count rate from the detector, the x-ray spot size was kept at 300×700 microns for both the low resolution survey scans, as well as the high resolution scans of energy ranges of interest. All samples showed a strong propensity for charging resulting in peaks shifts, and broadening due to uneven charging. The peak widths were minimized by flooding the sample with low-energy electrons and ions from the instrument\'s charge neutralizer system, however, there is still ambiguity regarding the absolute peak positions. A common approach to determining the absolute energy shift is to reference the spectra to the C 1 s peak from adventitious carbon. For these samples, which have sp2, sp3 and carboxylic carbon from oleic acid, this approach is also ambiguous. To provide an absolute energy reference, a small concentration of argon atoms was implanted into the sample using 1 keV Ar+. The positions of the XPS peaks of interest were then corrected using the shift observed (typically around 0.7 eV) for the Ar 2 p peak, relative to its literature value (241.8 eV).12 The disadvantage of this approach is that some sputter damage to the surface accompanies Ar implantation. The energy corrections estimated by reference to implanted Ar and adventitious carbon differed by no more than 0.4 eV, and were nearly constant for all samples. This discrepancy is not large enough to introduce any ambiguity in peak identification.
Particle size and morphology information were obtained using a combination of dynamic light scattering (DLS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). For DLS, a Particle Sizing Systems NICOMP 380 was used, and the particles were suspended in hexane solvent (viscosity=0.294 CP, index of refraction 1.375 at 25° C.). SEM images were obtained on a FEI Nova Nano 600 operated at a beam energy of 20 kV. Samples for SEM were washed in methanol and centrifuged as described, re-dispersed in hexanes by ultra-sonication, pipetted onto aluminum stubs, and oven dried prior to analysis.
Results and Discussion:
FIGS. 1A through 1D show four representative SEM images of boron: un-milled, dry-milled, wet-milled in hexanes, and wet-milled in hexanes with oleic acid surfactant. The dry-milled powder was milled for 6 hours, while the wet-milled samples were run for only 3 hours because milling is more efficient. All of the images in FIGS. 1A through 1D for milled material were from samples that were milled with a tungsten carbide (WC) jar and WC balls. All images were collected under the same conditions at 50,000 times magnification. It can be seen that the large sharp edged particles in the un-milled sample are reduced in size and have more rounded shapes. Aggregation of the particles during drying for SEM analysis is extensive, and makes determination of the particle size distribution difficult. In the un-milled boron the particles appear to be primarily in the 500-2000 nm range. For all milled samples, the size distributions are dominated by particles in the sub-150 nm size range, but the appearance of the samples is quite different. The sample milled in hexanes with oleic acid appears to have a narrower distribution of primary particle sizes, and the aggregates look smoother. For the oleic acid-functionalized samples, the particle solubility in hydrocarbons is high, allowing the use of DLS to probe the size distribution of the dispersed primary particles. Stable suspensions of the un-functionalized boron particles was not achieved, thus no further analysis of the size distributions was performed.
For DLS, the washed, centrifuged samples were re-suspended in hexane by ultra-sonication prior to analysis. FIG. 2 shows normalized histogram plots of the number- and mass-weighted size distributions for boron particles in hexane. The number-weighed distribution (top frame) is dominated by sub-100 nm particles, with a barely visible peak around 600 nm. Because mass scales with d3, these large particles make up nearly half the mass-weighted distribution (bottom frame). The question is whether these large particles are simply boron feedstock that somehow missed getting broken down in milling, or if they are aggregates of smaller particles that are resistant to breakup during re-suspension for DLS.
The latter interpretation was suggested by experiments where the milling time was increased from the 3 hours used for most wet milling experiments. Longer milling times were found to slightly increase the fraction of the mass distribution in the sub-100 nm range, but at the same time, the size distribution of the large particles increased to 1 μm or more. This shows that milling can build stable aggregates by cold-welding small particles together.
Regardless of the nature of the large particles, they can easily be removed by sedimentation, either by centrifuging the suspension for 15 minutes, or by simply allowing it to stand undisturbed for a few days. FIG. 3 shows the size distribution obtained after centrifuging the suspension, then analyzing the supernatant fluid. Note that the large particles are all gone, but the size distribution of sub-100 nm particles is essentially identical to that in the original suspension. Once the large particles have sedimented out, the remaining suspension is stable for at least six months. The same is true for boron particle suspensions in JP-5. For large scale production of boron particles, one would presumably recover the large particles for further milling to avoid waste of the boron feedstock.
Because even the small, stably suspended particles aggregate extensively during drying, it is hard to compare the DLS and SEM results. FIG. 4 shows an SEM image of oleic acid-functionalized boron particles taken from the supernatant after centrifugation. To minimize formation of large aggregates during sample drying, the particle suspension was diluted before spotting onto a TEM grid. The particles still aggregate when dried, but this image shows that the primary particle size distribution is relatively narrow with average diameter near ˜50 nm (40-60 nm range), and no primary particles larger than 100 nm. This is in excellent agreement with the DLS results for the centrifuged suspension.
In summary, milling with subsequent sedimentation to remove large aggregates, produces a narrow distribution of boron particle sizes between 40 and 60 nm in diameter. The particle shapes are irregular, but with rounded edges. The oleic acid-functionalized particles are soluble, i.e., form stable suspensions, in hydrocarbon solvents such as hexane, and in hydrocarbon fuels such as JP-5, which are complex mixtures, but contain substantial fractions of alkanes and alkenes that appear to interact with the hydrocarbon tails of the oleic acid coating.
The surface composition and chemical state was probed by XPS, and the composition results are summarized in Table 1 for un-milled boron, and boron that was milled dry, wetted with hexanes, and wetted with hexanes and oleic acid.
Summary of surface atomic compositions
surface atomic composition