Genre - Literary Epic
Although the Aeneid shares
many characteristics with the Homeric epic, as an epic it is
different in important ways. For this reason, the Aeneid
is referred to as a literary or secondary epic in order to
differentiate it from primitive or primary epics such as the
Homeric poems. The terms "primitive", "primary"
and "secondary" should not be interpreted as value
judgments, but merely as indications that the original character
of the epic was improvisational and oral, while that of the Aeneid,
composed later in the epic tradition, was basically non-oral
and crafted with the aid of writing. As we have seen,
the Homeric poems give evidence of improvisational techniques
of composition1 involving the use of various formulas.
This style of composition is suited to the demands of improvisation
before an audience which do not allow the poet time to create
new ways of expressing various ideas. In order to keep
his performance going he must depend upon stock phrases, which
are designed to fill out various portions of the dactylic hexameter2
line. On the other hand, Vergil,
composing in private, obviously spent much time on creating his
own personal poetic language. Thus in reading the Aeneid
you will notice the absence of the continual repetition of
formulas, which are unnecessary in a literary or secondary epic.
the Homeric poems were originally improvised without the aid
of writing or written down by the poet himself or dictated to
a scribe and then recited, is not known for certain, but it is
clear that they were composed in the style of improvised oral
2Vergil in the Aeneid uses this traditional
meter of epic poetry.
Vergil, however, does imitate
Homeric language without the repetitions. This is another
reason for calling the Aeneid a secondary epic. For
example, Vergil occasionally translates individual Homeric formulas
or even creates new formulas in imitation of Homer
such as "pious Aeneas",
imitates other Homeric stylistic devices such as the epic simile
and uses the Homeric poems as a source for story patterns.
Although in this sense the Aeneid can be called derivative,
what Vergil has taken from Homer he has recast in a way which
has made his borrowings thoroughly Vergilian and Roman. For
example, Vergil changed the value system characteristic of the
Homeric epic, which celebrated heroic individualism such as displayed
in the Iliad. The heroic values of an Achilles would have
been anachronistic and inappropriate in a poem written for readers
in Rome of the first century B.C., who required their leaders
to live according to a more social ideal suited to a sophisticated
urban civilization. Therefore, although Vergil set the
action of his poem in a legendary age contemporary with the Trojan
War before Rome existed, one must judge the characters of his
poem by the standards of the poet's own times.
Vergil (70-19 B.C.) lived through
the politically violent and chaotic years of the failing Republic,
and his writings very clearly show the influence of the events
of this period. Thus, an understanding of the history
of this era is critical to the interpretation of the Aeneid.
In 63, a conspiracy to overthrow
the Roman government led by the infamous Catiline was discovered
and defeated through the efforts of Cicero, the consul of that
year. There were, however, other threats to the existing
order soon to follow. After the powerful general Pompey
returned from his extensive conquests in the East in 62, the
refusal of the Senate to approve his settlement of affairs there
alienated him from the Optimates. As a result, he joined
in political alliance with the leaders of the Populares:
and Marcus Crassus. The alliance has come to be known
as the First Triumvirate and was sealed by the marriage of Pompey
to Caesar's daughter.3 Employing the threat of Pompey's
military power, these three men were able to impose their will
on Rome. In this way Caesar insured his own election to
the consulship in 59 and in the following year, his assignment
to the governorship of Gaul, which required the command of a
large army to subdue the warlike natives. Caesar enjoyed
great military successes against the Gauls for almost a ten-year
period, but what meant most to him was the fact that he now had
an army loyal to himself, making him equal to Pompey, who had
for so long overshadowed him in military power.
predict the civil war between these two leaders, their names
are not mentioned, but they are referred to as father-in-law
and son-in-law (6.828-831).
In the late 50's with Caesar
in Gaul and Pompey virtually ruler at Rome, a split between the
two leaders became increasingly evident, especially after the
death of Caesar's daughter, which removed the last tie between
them. Civil war was inevitable. As the poet Lucan
put it: "Caesar is able to tolerate no man as his superior;
Pompey, no man as his equal" (1.125-126). The war
between Caesar and Pompey ended with the latter's defeat in Greece
and his assassination in Egypt. After his victory Caesar
assumed the dictatorship at Rome, which ultimately was granted
to him for life. Caesar was now sole ruler of Rome.
Resentment at the loss of political freedom resulted in his
assassination by Brutus, Cassius, and others in 44.
Caesar's army passed in good
part into the possession of his eighteen-year- old grand-nephew,
his chief heir, who was adopted as Caesar's son according to
the terms of his will. Because of his youth, no one expected
Octavian to be of any consequence in the political arena, but
with a maturity beyond his years he won over Caesar's veterans
and was determined to avenge his adoptive father's death.
Octavian came into immediate conflict with Caesar's lieutenant,
who felt that his close association with the dictator earned
him the right to succeed Caesar. Cicero sided with Octavian
and attacked Antony in a set of speeches called the Philippics,
which resulted in Antony's being declared a public enemy.
After Antony suffered a defeat at the hands of a coalition
of military leaders (including Octavian), Antony and Octavian
decided it would be in their own best interests to join in political
alliance. They along with Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate
(43 B.C.) and revived Sulla's technique of proscription in order
to rid themselves of their political enemies. One of the
most prominent victims of this proscription was Cicero himself,
whose death was demanded by Antony in revenge for the Philippics
and reluctantly agreed to by Octavian. At Antony's command
head and hands were cut off and placed on the speaker's platform
in the Forum. This barbaric act serves as a vivid symbol
of the bloody violence of the last years of the Republic.
Following the proscriptions
Antony and Octavian turned their attention to the assassins of
Caesar and defeated them in Greece at the battle of Philippi
(42 B.C.). Their alliance was weakened when Antony's brother
revolted against Octavian while Antony was in Egypt, but was
reconfirmed by the marriage of Antony and Octavian's sister.
There were two more temporarily successful attempts to prevent
a split between Octavian and Antony, but Antony's romantic involvement
the queen of Egypt, which resulted in his rejection and ultimate
divorce of Octavia, permanently alienated the two leaders.
In addition, Antony's obvious intention to use the wealth
of Egypt as a basis of power for uniting the East under his control
made war unavoidable. The final conflict was a naval battle
off Actium (31 B.C.) on the western coast of Greece, in which
Antony and Cleopatra were routed by Octavian's fleet. The
defeated pair later committed suicide in Alexandria.
was a member of the Ptolemies, the Greek ruling family of Egypt,
which had controlled Egypt since the death of Alexander
the Great. As was the custom, she was married to her brother
Ptolemy XIII, and after his death, to another brother Ptolemy
XIV. During his campaign in the East after his victory
over Pompey, Julius Caesar had an affair with her and fathered
After Actium Octavian embarked
on a program of restoring order by reuniting the Roman present
with its old moral, religious and political traditions. He
made a show of restoring the free Republic, but Octavian with
his control over the Roman army and finances was in fact the
sole ruler of Rome and its empire. In 27 B.C. the Roman
Senate bestowed upon him the honorific title of Augustus,5
which symbolized his special position of authority in the state.
Octavian was welcomed as a savior by such writers as Vergil
and Horace, the great lyric poet, and by the vast majority of
Romans, because he had brought peace to Rome after a century
of civil conflict. The admiration expressed by the poets
for Octavian's accomplishments, although its effusiveness is
sometimes offensive to modern taste, should not be interpreted
as mere servile praise and political propaganda, but as an honest
appreciation of a political leader who had brought an end to
the horrors of civil war and was able to act with moderation
after his victory.
"Augustus" had special religious associations and was
etymologically related to the Latin word auctoritas 'authority'.
Reading the Aeneid
The Aeneid differs from
the Iliad and the Odyssey in that it often gives
evidence of meaning beyond the narrative level. Homeric
narrative is fairly straightforward; there is generally no need
to look for significance which is not explicit in the story.
On the other hand, although Vergilian narrative can be read
and enjoyed as a story, it is often densely packed with implicit
symbolic meaning. Frequently the implicit reference is
to Roman history. While Homer is little concerned with
the relationship of the past to the present - the past is preserved
for its intrinsic interest as a story - Vergil recounts the legend
of Aeneas because he believes it has meaning for Roman history
and especially for his own times. For example, the destruction
of Troy resulting in the wanderings of Aeneas and his followers
west to find a new life can be seen as parallel to the history
of Rome in the first century B.C., which included both the violent
destruction of the Republic and the creation of peace and order
by Augustus. Also suggestive of the Roman civil wars is
the "civil war" between the Trojans and their Italian
allies, and Aeneas's victory over the Italians in this war suggests
Augustus's ending of the Roman civil wars. The Carthaginian
whose beauty almost makes Aeneas forget his duty as a leader,
reminds the reader of Cleopatra's similar relationship with Antony.
Dido's story also provides a legendary explanation for the
historical hostility between Rome and Carthage which resulted
in three wars. These are only a few examples of the importance
of Roman history in the Aeneid. In the questions at the
end of this section help will be provided to enable you to see
other implicit allusions to Roman history.
Another important difference
between the Aeneid and the Homeric poems is that the former
has a philosophical basis while the latter were composed in an
era completely innocent of philosophy. The Aeneid
gives evidence of the influence of Stoicism,
a Hellenistic philosophy which had gained many adherents in the
Greek world and by the first century B.C. had become the
most popular philosophy of the educated classes at Rome. In
reading the Aeneid be alert for Stoic influence. Note
the connection between fate and the foundation of Rome. Also
note when Aeneas adheres to Stoic ethical principles and when
he does not. Finally, be sure to read carefully Anchises's
digression on the nature of the universe and human existence
(6.724-751), which combines Stoic physical theory with
Orphic and Pythagorean teachings (transmigration of souls).
On the other hand, the gods in the Aeneid for the
most part do not reflect the Stoic view of divinity. They
are basically the traditional anthropomorphic deities of myth
as required by the conventions of epic. On occasion, however,
Stoic influence is evident as in book 1 when Jupiter
is closely identified with providential fate (1.262 ff.).
Another important aspect of
the interpretation of the Aeneid is Vergil's use of the
Homeric poems. In the Aeneid there are innumerable
echoes of the Iliad and the Odyssey. Do not be
concerned if you do not immediately recognize the allusions to
Homer; it takes some experience and practice. Some echoes
are so subtle that they go unnoticed even by experienced readers
of the poem. Perhaps the most important connections for
you to make will be in book 12 where your knowledge of the Iliad
will enable you to see how important figures of Vergil's poem
are associated in various ways with heroes of the Iliad. Once
these connections are identified, you will see that these references
to the Iliad provide an interesting and significant commentary
on the action of the Aeneid.
Finally, you should be conscious
of recurring images in the Aeneid such as snakes, wounds,
fire, hunting, and storms, and their meaning for the narrative.
In your study of the imagery notice the Vergilian technique
of making a real part of the story an image and vice-versa.
For example, consider hunting in the Aeneid. In book
1 Aeneas is a real hunter who slays deer; in book 4 in a simile
he is a metaphorical hunter of Dido and then again a real hunter
as he and Dido engage in a hunting expedition. No doubt
Vergil intended these three instances of hunting to refer to
each other implicitly and to comment upon the story. Recurring
words have a significance in the Aeneid uncharacteristic
of the Homeric poems, which, due to the nature of oral poetry,
as a matter of course employ constant repetition of formulas.
Of course, the reader in translation is at a disadvantage
in this regard since translators often do not translate any given
Latin word in the same way every time, but even if there is not
consistent translation of a given Latin word, the concepts which
these recurring words convey can be identified in translation.
Two of the most important recurrent words in the Aeneid
are furor, which means 'violent madness', 'frenzy',
'fury', `passionate desire' etc., and its associated verb,
furere 'to rage', 'to have a mad passion'. These words
have important meaning for the characters in the Aeneid
to whom they are applied and whose behavior must be evaluated
by reference to the Stoic ethical ideal. In addition,
these two words connect the legendary world of the Aeneid
with Roman politics of the first century B.C. because
they were often used in prose of the late Republic to describe
the political chaos of that era.
In reading the Aeneid try
to be aware of interpretative points such as those described
above. With attention to these details of interpretation
you will begin to appreciate the art of Vergil and understand
better the meaning of the poem.
EXERCISE IN READING COMPREHENSION
Just as Homer used the
first lines of the Iliad and Odyssey to announce
the main themes of those poems, Vergil presents the two main
themes of the Aeneid in the first line. What are
these two central themes? What universal force is responsible
for Aeneas's sufferings as an exile (2)?6 In accordance
with this universal force, what is the purpose of his sufferings
in parentheses refer to line numbers in the Aeneid.
Explain the reasons for Juno's
hatred of the Trojans (12-33). Why is it appropriate to
Juno's character that she uses a storm to keep Aeneas away from
Italy (50 ff.)? What do you think the storm represents symbolically?
Aeneas's speech during the storm at sea is an adaptation of a
speech of Odysseus
in the Odyssey also in the process of being shipwrecked.
Odysseus says (5.306-312):
Three and four times blessed
are the Danaans who perished/ in broad Troy bringing favor to
the sons of Atreus./ How I wish I had died and met my fate/ on
that day when innumerable Trojans threw their bronze-tipped spears/
at me around the corpse of Peleus's son./ I would have received
my funeral honors and the Achaeans
would remember my glory./Now it is my fate to die a pitiful death/(tr.by
What does Aeneas's similar speech
tells us about his character (94-101)? Compare his speech with
that of Odysseus. What is the most important difference?
Compare the beginning of the action of the Aeneid with
the same in the Iliad. Does Vergil imitate Homer's in
medias res beginning? Explain your answer.
The first simile in the poem
is an extended simile which describes Neptune's calming of the
storm (148-156). How does this simile connect the narrative
of the Aeneid with first century B.C. Rome? What
is the cause of violence in the simile (150)? Do you find any
similarity between this cause and the cause of the storm? Explain
What is the purpose of Aeneas's
hunting (180 ff.)? What does Aeneas's speech tell us about his
character (198-207)? Why does Venus make a complaint to
Jupiter (229-253)? Sum up in one sentence the essence of Jupiter's
reply (257-296). The Julius Caesar mentioned by Jupiter
(286-288) is in fact Augustus, who was legally entitled to use
his adoptive father's name. Describe the result of his
dominion according to Vergil (291-296). Note the personification
of Sacrilegious Fury (Furor impius), which is a negation
of those values that Aeneas is supposed to represent. Furor
is opposed to the rational control of one's passions and
acceptance of fate while impius involves a repudiation
of pietas 'devotion to one's gods, country and parents',
which is the characteristic virtue of Aeneas. What benefit
does the imprisonment of Sacrilegious Fury bring to Rome?
What is especially ironical
about Venus wearing a disguise that would allow her to resemble
a Spartan maiden or the virgin goddess Diana, sister of Apollo
(315-316; 329)? Sum up in one sentence the information which
gives Aeneas (335-370)? Why is Venus in disguise when she gives
this information to her son (cf. her later order that
Cupid assume a disguise, 684)?
What event does Aeneas see depicted
on the walls of Dido's temple (453-493)? What is Aeneas's reaction
to these scenes (462-465)? Why does he react in this way?
The last figure depicted before the appearance of Dido is the
who near the end of the war came as an ally to Troy and was killed
by Achilles (490-493). In what way could Vergil's description
of Penthesilea be said to apply to Dido? When she appears, Dido
is immediately compared to Diana (498-502). What is the
purpose of this simile? Can you suggest any other meaning implicit
in this comparison beyond mere description?
What is Dido's first reaction
to Aeneas (613-630)? What trick does Venus plan (657-688)? Why
does Venus believe that this trick is necessary (661-662)? What
literary device is Vergil employing in 712? What request does
Dido make of Aeneas at the banquet (753-756)?
What trick did the Greeks
prepare for the Trojans (13-39)? Why didn't the Trojans
believe Laocoon's warning and the evidence of their own ears
(54)? Why do the Trojans believe Sinon's false story (145)? What
is the fate of Laocoon (199-227)? What is the reaction
of the Trojans to this event (228-249)? What literary
device is Vergil employing in 238-240?
What advice does the ghost of
give to Aeneas (289-295)? How does Aeneas react to the
attack on Troy (314-317)? Does Aeneas view his behavior
on that night in a positive or negative light? Explain your answer.
Note the snake imagery in the two similes (379-381; 471-475).
In conjunction with the appearance of the twin snakes in
the Laocoon incident what meaning does this snake imagery suggest?
It has been suggested that Vergil's
description of Priam's
corpse (557-558) was inspired by a contemporary account of Pompey's
death, of which we have a version in Plutarch's Life of Pompey:
"They [Pompey's assassins] cut off Pompey's head and threw
the rest of his body naked out of the boat leaving it there [on
the shore], as a spectacle for those who desired to see such
a sight" (80; tr. by R. Warner). What
meaning is Vergil suggesting by describing the corpse of Priam
in such a way as to recall Pompey?
What is Aeneas's reaction to
the sight of Helen
(567-587)? What arguments does Venus use to convince Aeneas
not to kill Helen (594-620)?
What is Anchises's
reaction to Aeneas's desire to save him (641-649)? What
changes Anchises's mind (682-700)? Describe the manner in which
Aeneas, his father and son leave Troy (707-725). What
symbolism is suggested by this scene? What is the fate of Aeneas's
wife Creusa (737-740)? What advice does the ghost of Creusa give
to Aeneas (776-789)?
In the first two lines
the two dominant images of the book are introduced. What
are they and to what do they refer? Be alert for their
appearances throughout the book. Try to determine what
comment they make on Dido and her fate.
What effect has Aeneas had on
Dido (9-23)? Why was Dido determined to remain unmarried (15-29)?
What advice does Anna give Dido (31-53)? Analyze carefully the
simile in 69-73. What meaning does this simile have for
the story? What effect does her passion have on Dido (76-89)?
What suggestion does Juno make
to Venus (93-104)? What is Venus's reaction to this suggestion
(105-114)? How does Juno propose to accomplish her plan (115-127)?
How does Venus react to this plan (127-128)? Why does Vergil
have Juno choose the occasion of a hunt for the consummation
of the love affair (cf. the hunting simile in 69-73 and
the wound imagery of the whole book)? What comment does the simile
comparing Aeneas to Apollo in 143-149 make on this love affair
(cf. the simile in book 1.498-502 comparing Dido to Diana)?
What literary device is Vergil employing in 169-170)?
How do the peoples of Libya
find out about the love affair (173-188)? Find an example
of personification in this passage. Who is Iarbas? What
prayer does he make to Jupiter (206-218)? How does Jupiter
answer his prayer (223-237)? What is Aeneas's reaction to Mercury's
message (279-295)? What comment does the simile in 299-303 make
on Dido's behavior when she discovers that Aeneas is about to
leave her? What complaints does Dido make to Aeneas (305-330)?
How does Aeneas answer Dido (333-361)? What hope does Dido express
and what threat does she make (382-387)? What specific philosophy
seems to be implicit in Dido's words in 379-380 with regard to
her view of the gods?
Analyze carefully the passage
which contains the oak tree simile (438-449). What kind
of heroism does Aeneas display at this moment? Is this the kind
of heroism generally exhibited by a Homeric hero (e.g., Achilles)?
Explain your answer. Measure Aeneas's behavior here against
the Stoic ethical ideal.
Describe Dido's condition after
Aeneas's final rejection (465-474). Measure her behavior
against the Stoic ethical ideal. What does she resolve
to do (475-477)? How does she conceal her plan to Anna (478-498)?
Why does she think that her plan is her only possible course
of action (534-552)? What reference to Roman history does the
final part of Dido's curse contain (622-629)? Explain how the
two dominant images of the book become real elements in the narrative
at the end of book 4 and the beginning of book 5 (1-5). Explain
why Dido is considered a tragic figure.
At the invitation of
his father's ghost in 5.724-739 Aeneas visits the underworld.
Aeneas's trip to the land of the dead is modeled on Odysseus's
visit to the same place in book 11 of the Odyssey. In
both cases the purpose of the trip to the underworld is the quest
for knowledge only obtainable from the dead. Odysseus
gets his information from Teiresias;
Aeneas, from his father Anchises.
Aeneas enters the underworld
at Cumae in southern Italy at the temple of Apollo accompanied
by the god's priestess, the Sibyl. What prophecy does the Sibyl
make to Aeneas (83-97)? How do the details of her prophecy resemble
the circumstances of the Trojan War? What does the Sibyl tell
Aeneas he must do in order to enter the land of the dead (133-155)?
How does the mistletoe simile 205-207) symbolically point out
the appropriateness of the golden bough as a token necessary
for entrance to the underworld?
How are ghosts transported across
the river Styx (299-304)? Why are some spirits not allowed
to cross the river Styx (322-330)? Whom does Aeneas meet
among these ghosts and what request does he make of Aeneas (337-371)?
How does Aeneas respond to this request (373-381)?
In the Mourning Fields Aeneas
meets the ghost of Dido (440-476). This meeting is based
on Odysseus's encounter with Aias,
son of Telamon, in the underworld. Aias, whose shame at
losing a contest for the arms of Achilles to Odysseus led to
his suicide, reacted with hostile silence to Odysseus's friendly
overtures in the underworld (11.541-567). How does Dido
react to Aeneas's apologetic words (469-474)?
In the area reserved for famous
military heroes Aeneas meets Deiphobus (477-547). Who
is Deiphobus and what was his fate on Troy's last night?
What area is reserved for the
punishment of the wicked (548-558)? for the reward of
the good (638-644)? What kind of goodness is required for entrance
into this area (660-664)?
What information does Anchises
want to convey to Aeneas and what does he hope to achieve by
summoning Aeneas to the underworld (713-718)? What does Aeneas's
comment on the souls awaiting return to life indicate about his
state of mind at this point (719-721)? In 724-751 Anchises gives
Aeneas an account of the purification and transmigration of souls.
The passage in general combines Stoic theory with Orphic
and Pythagorean doctrines found in Plato.7
In Vergil's day these Greek teachings had become a part of Roman
Stoicism. What is specifically Stoic about the view of
emotions presented in the first part of Anchises's account (732-738)?
Strict Stoic theory rejected the existence of reward and punishment
in the afterlife, but taught that the soul went through a purgation
process until it was pure enough to rejoin the divine fire from
which it sprang. According to Anchises by what means is
purgation of the soul accomplished (739-742)?
the transmigration of souls in the "Myth of Er"
in the Republic.
In 756-885 Aeneas sees the future
of Rome in the form of the souls of famous Roman leaders from
the foundation of the city down to Vergil's own day. In
their midst is Augustus Caesar (789-805). What achievements
are prophesied for Augustus? How do the comparisons with Hercules
emphasize these achievements? What role in history does
Anchises assign to the Romans (847-853)? To whom are the
Romans implicitly compared in this passage?
Despite the general optimism
of Anchises's review of the Roman future, his listing of great
Roman heroes ends on a tragic note with Marcellus, Augustus's
nephew and designated heir, who died young (860-885). As
will be evident later in the poem in the case of Pallas and others,
Vergil is much moved by youthful death. He sees it as
one of the unfortunate tragedies required by providential fate
in the accomplishment of destiny.
The book ends with Aeneas's
return to the upper world through the ivory gate. What
usually goes up to the world through this gate (895-896)? These
two lines have been much debated throughout the history of Vergilian
scholarship. What comment do you think Vergil is making
here on Aeneas's trip to the underworld?
What advice does the
river god Tiber give to Aeneas (36-65)? Aeneas arrives
at the future site of Rome and is greeted by Pallas and his father
Evander, who dwell on the Palatine Hill where Augustus later
had his house.8 Evander
tells the story of Hercules's defeat of the primitive fire-breathing
which is the reason for the celebration of rites at this site
in honor of Hercules (185-267). Hercules was a prototypical
Stoic hero who was credited with bringing justice and peace to
the world by his labors on behalf of civilization and consequently
was made a god for his efforts. Jupiter
predicted in 1.289-290 that Augustus would become a god. In
6.801-803, Augustus was compared favorably with Hercules.
If Hercules is a prototype of Augustus, what meaning does
the story of Cacus add to Vergil's view of Augustus? Hercules
also serves as a prototype of Aeneas. What do the two
heroes have in common (288-302)?
description of Evander's house as small (366) is no doubt meant
to make his readers think of Augustus's modest house on the Palatine.
What request does Venus make
(374-386)? What is his answer (395-404)? What scene in the Iliad
is this meant to recall (see Iliad 18.368 ff.)?
Why does Evander urge Aeneas
to seek the aid of Etruria (470-509)? What help does Evander
give Aeneas (514-519)?
State in general terms what
is depicted on Aeneas's shield (626-628). Note especially
the depiction of the battle of Actium and Augustus's triumph
(675-728). Why does the battle of Actium
occupy a central position (675) on the shield? What view does
Vergil present of Antony
(685-688; 696-697; 707-708)? of the conflict between Egyptian
and Roman gods (698-713)? What earlier event in the poem
do the twin snakes recall (697)? What effect does the
intervention of Apollo (Augustus's patron divinity) have (704-706)?
Analyze carefully the
simile in 4-8. What earlier character in the poem is suggested
by the first two lines of the simile? Explain your answer.
The words "with bloody mouth" recall the description
of personified furor in book 1.294-296. What is
the significance of these reminiscences with reference to the
character of Turnus? Turnus accepts the idea of single combat
with Aeneas to determine the outcome of the war, but both King
and Queen Amata
try to dissuade him (10-63). Identify the Iliadic allusion
in this passage (see Iliad 22.38-89).
After Aeneas agrees to a truce
for the purpose of the duel (111-112), what information does
Juno give to, and what request does she make of, Turnus's sister
Juturna (142-159) (for Iliadic parallel see 4.68-72)? How does
Juturna go about carrying out this request (222-265)? What happens
to Aeneas (318-323) (for Iliadic parallel see Iliad. 4.124-140)?
With what hero of the Iliad is Aeneas identified by means
of this Homeric echo? What is the significance of this identification
for the Aeneid? Compare the reactions of Aeneas and Turnus
to the breaking of the truce (313-317; 324-330). How is
Aeneas's attitude different in 565-573?
Why does Amata commit suicide
(593-603)? Describe her state of mind. What is the Iliadic
parallel for Turnus's words in 643-645 (see Iliad. 22.99-103)?
What is the significance of this parallel for Turnus? What is
Turnus's attitude toward his final battle with Aeneas (676-680)?
What comment does the simile in 684-689 make upon Turnus (for
Iliadic parallel see Iliad. 13.137-142)? Identify the
Iliadic allusions for 725-727, 763-765 and 908-912 (see Iliad.
22.209-213; 158-161; 199-201) and explain their significance
for Turnus and Aeneas.
How does Juno answer Jupiter's
request that she give up her resistance to fate (808-828)? What
is Jupiter's reaction to her answer (830-840)? What sign does
Jupiter give to Turnus and Juturna (843-871)? What does this
omen mean (874-886)? What is the Iliadic parallel for Turnus's
suppliancy to Aeneas in 931-938 (see Iliad 22.250-259;
338-343)? With what Iliadic heroes are Aeneas and Turnus identified
by means of the various Homeric echoes throughout the last half
of book 12? What is the significance of these identifications?
What is Aeneas's first reaction to Turnus's suppliancy (938-941)?
Why does Aeneas kill Turnus (941-949)? What comment does line
946 make on the character of Aeneas at this point? How would
you evaluate Aeneas's action in the light of the Stoic ethical
ideal? Why do you think Vergil ended the poem in this way?