Update on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Hyperthyroidism
Update on the Diagnosis and Treatment of
Case Study and Commentary, Elias S. Siraj, MD
Cme jointly sponsored by
Wayne state University school of medicine A 25-year-old woman presents to her physician
with symptoms of fatigue, headaches, and fluctuat-
ing weight. On examination, vital signs are within normal
This article has a companion CME exam that follows
range. Body mass index (BMI) is 28 kg/m2. Thyroid examina-
the article. To earn credit, read the article and com-
tion is unremarkable. A thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
plete the CME evaluation on pages 306 and 307.
Estimated time to complete this activity is 1 hour. level is ordered and found to be low at 0.1 mIU/L (reference
Faculty disclosure information appears on page 304. range, 0.5–5.0 mIU/L). Free levorotatory thyroxine (T4) and
Release date: 15 June 2008; valid for credit through free triiodothyronine (T3) levels are subsequently checked
30 June 2009. and found to be normal.
Primary care physicians.
• How should the results of the patient’s thyroid function
educational Needs Addressed tests be interpreted?
Signs and symptoms of hyperthyroidism are wide-
ranging and the frequency and severity of symp-
toms can vary, which makes diagnosis a chal- A patient with low TSH and normal T4 and T3 is consid-
lenge. Primary care physicians are often the first ered to have subclinical hyperthyroidism. Typically, these
to evaluate these patients. A detailed evaluation patients do not have clear signs and symptoms of hyper-
that includes questions about extent and duration thyroidism. The prevalence of subclinical hyperthyroidism
of symptoms, past medical history, family history, ranges from 0.7% to 12.4%. This variability is partly due to
physical examination (including thyroid examina- differences among studies in the definition of a low serum
tion), and appropriate laboratory tests can help
TSH value [1–4].
guide the treating physician to the etiology. Proper
The causes of subclinical hyperthyroidism are similar to
management depends on properly identifying the
cause of hyperthyroidism. Regular monitoring for those of overt hyperthyroidism (Table 1). The most common
changes in thyroid function is required, as progno- causes of subclinical hyperthyroidism are
sis can be adversely affected if a euthyroid state • Exogenous administration of levothyroxine for treating
is not maintained.
hypothyroidism. Among patients taking levothyroxine,
educational objectives as many as 25% may have low serum TSH values 
After participating in this CME activity, primary care • Autonomously functioning thyroid adenomas and
physicians should be able to multinodular goiters
1. Differentiate between etiologies of hyperthy-
roidism • Subacute thyroiditis
2. Describe management options for subclinical
hyperthyroidism • Less commonly, Graves’ disease
3. Outline the typical course of and management
strategies for subacute thyroiditis
4. Understand the approach to diagnosis and
management of Graves’ disease
5. Describe signs and symptoms of thyroid storm From the Department of Medicine, Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes and
Metabolism, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA.
298 JCOM June 2008 Vol. 15, No. 6 www.turner-white.com
Table 1. Common Causes of Hyperthyroidism
• What is the clinical significance of subclinical hyper-
Autoimmune thyroid disease
Autonomous thyroid tissues
The cardiovascular system and the skeletal system are the Toxic multinodular goiter
major organs affected by subclinical hyperthyroidism. Subacute thyroiditis
Subacute granulomatous thyroiditis (painful)
Skeletal System Subacute silent thyroiditis (painless)
Although some uncertainty remains, the majority of stud- Includes postpartum thyroiditis
ies in both exogenous and endogenous subclinical hyper- Exogenous thyroid hormone intake
thyroidism showed that a prolonged hyperthyroid state Excessive replacement dose
may lead to lower bone mineral density [6,7]. This may be Factitious hyperthyroidism
more pronounced in postmenopausal women. Whether de- Iodine-induced hyperthyroidism (including amiodarone)
creased bone mineral density translates into increased risk Thyroiditis
of fractures is unclear. Autonomous thyroid hormone production
Other rare causes
Cardiovascular hCG-mediated hyperthyroidism
As with overt hyperthyroidism, the frequency of atrial Struma ovarii
fibrillation is increased in patients with subclinical hyper- TSH-mediated (eg, TSH-secreting pituitary adenoma)
thyroidism [8,9]. Increased occurrence of tachycardia and
ectopic beats may also be present. Possible induction of hCG = human chorionic gonadotropin; TSH = thyroid-stimulating
reentrant atrioventricular nodal tachycardia may occur in hormone.
predisposed patients. Increases in cardiac contractility and
left ventricular mass index as well as diastolic dysfunction TSH and bring the T4 and T3 levels toward low-
may be seen. Mortality studies are not conclusive as to normal while at the same time avoiding hypothyroid
whether risk of mortality is increased [10,11]. symptoms
• Radioactive iodine treatment is an option if radioac-
• Should subclinical hyperthyroidism be treated? tive iodine uptake and scan has shown autonomous
nodule or a low-grade Graves’ disease
• In patients where there is evidence of osteopenia or
The decision to treat subclinical hyperthyroidism depends osteoporosis, bisphosphonate treatment may have to
on several factors, including the age of the patient, degree be initiated to protect the bones
of abnormalities seen on thyroid function testing, and
presence or absence of risk factors for cardiovascular and Details regarding treatment options are described in more
skeletal complications. Observation is preferred if TSH level detail in subsequent sections.
is greater than 0.1 mIU/L and if there is a low risk of bone
or cardiac complications. Treatment should be considered Case Follow-up
if the patient is elderly, TSH level is less than 0.1 mIU/L, Given the asymptomatic nature of the patient’s sub-
or if there is evidence of or high risk for cardiac and bone clinical hyperthyroidism, a decision is made not to
complications . In cases of exogenous subclinical hyper- start treatment. She is lost to follow-up for 3 years.
thyroidism, an attempt should be made to reduce the dose The patient then presents 2 months after delivering a
of the levothyroxine whenever possible. healthy baby complaining of dramatic weight loss, palpita-
If the decision is made to treat, treatment options include tions, and heat intolerance. On examination, heart rate is
the following: 110 bpm. She also has tremor, lid lag, and a slightly enlarged,
nontender thyroid. TSH is low at less than 0.002 mIU/L, and
• b Blockers may help to control some mild symptoms
T4 and T3 levels are high.
and also have protective effect on the heart
• Antithyroid drugs or thionamides can be used in
cases where b blockers are not considered to be ad- • What is the most likely diagnosis?
equate. The goal of treatment should be to normalize
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Table 2. Clues to Causes of Hyperthyroidism A variant of subacute thyroiditis, sometimes called sub-
acute granulomatous thyroiditis, is characterized by neck
Feature Likely Disorder
pain and a tender, diffuse goiter in addition to the other
Diffuse goiter Graves’ disease characteristics. Postpartum thyroiditis is subacute thyroid-
Exophthalmos Graves’ disease itis that occurs in women within 1 year after parturition.
Pain and tenderness on the thyroid area Subacute thyroiditis The typical course of subacute thyroiditis is initially
Nodular goiter Toxic adenoma or characterized by hyperthyroidism followed by euthyroid-
toxic nodular goiter
ism, hypothyroidism, and ultimately restoration of normal
Recent intravenous contrast exposure Iodine-induced
thyroid function in most cases (Figure).
Patient taking amiodarone for a cardiac Amiodarone-induced
Subacute thyroiditis may have some pathologic simi-
larities with Hashimoto’s disease, as many patients with
Hypothyroid patient taking levothyroxine Exogeneous
painless thyroiditis have high serum concentrations of an-
tithyroid microsomal (thyroid peroxidase) antibodies and
some develop overt chronic autoimmune thyroiditis several
As this patient is presenting in the immediate postpartum years later .
period, the physician should have a high degree of suspicion Treatment of patients with subacute thyroiditis is directed
for postpartum thyroiditis, whose presentation is similar to at relieving thyroid pain and tenderness and ameliorating
subacute thyroiditis. There are other clinical clues that can be symptoms of hyperthyroidism, if present. The few patients
helpful in identifying the cause of hyperthyroidism (Table 2). who have significant symptoms of hyperthyroidism, such
as palpitations, anxiety, or tremor, may benefit from treat-
ment with b blockers for few weeks. Some patients require
• Which tests may be helpful in the workup of the pa- no treatment because their symptoms are mild or subside by
tient with hyperthyroidism? the time they seek medical attention or when the diagnosis
is established. In some patients, anti-inflammatory therapy
with a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug is indicated to
Laboratory tests may help in differentiating between the control pain; in patients with severe pain, steroids may be
causes of hyperthyroidism. Presence of TSH receptor anti- needed .
bodies, in particular thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulin,
indicates Graves’ disease. Very high thyroglobulin levels are Case Continued
consistent with subacute thyroiditis. The patient is prescribed b blockers for her post-
The radioactive iodine uptake and scan can be helpful in partum thyroiditis. She does not return to the office
determining the etiology of hyperthyroidism and can help for follow-up.
in directing treatment. Radioactive iodine uptake measures The patient returns for evaluation 5 years later. She
how much of the radioactivity given orally has been taken up reports that 5 years ago her thyroid “had gotten back to
by the thyroid over a period of time and is typically reported normal” after a few months on b blockers, but she has now
as a percentage. The scan complements the uptake and developed similar symptoms consisting of palpitations,
shows how the activity is distributed in the thyroid. Table 3 heat intolerance, and weight loss. On examination, she has
shows the results of radioactive iodine uptake and scan in the a diffuse goiter estimated at 2 to 3 times the normal size,
most commonly seen causes of hyperthyroidism. lid lag, and exophthalmos. TSH is suppressed at less than
0.002 mIU/L, and her T4 and T3 levels are high. TSH receptor
antibody level is elevated.
• What is subacute thyroiditis?
• What is the most likely diagnosis at this time?
Subacute thyroiditis is characterized by transient hyperthy- • What are other possible diagnoses?
roidism, occasionally followed by hypothyroidism, and then
• What are the next steps in evaluation?
recovery. Some patients have transient increases in serum
antithyroid antibody concentrations during the hypothy-
roid phase, probably caused by release of thyroid antigens The combination of clinical and biochemical hyperthyroid-
during the preceding period of inflammation . After ism together with a diffuse goiter, exophthalmos, and positive
recovery, thyroid function is normal, as are ultrasonography TSH receptor antibody test suggests that Graves’ disease is
and thyroid biopsy [14,15]. the most likely diagnosis. Graves’ disease is the leading cause
300 JCOM June 2008 Vol. 15, No. 6 www.turner-white.com
Table 3. Radioactive Iodine Uptake and Scan in Various Forms of Hyperthyroidism
Disorder Uptake Scan Other Helpful Investigations
Graves’ disease Very high Diffuse activity in an enlarged gland Positive thyroid-stimulating hor-
mone receptor antibodies
Toxic adenoma Slightly high or normal Hot nodule + the rest of the gland
Toxic nodular goiter Slightly high or normal Areas of intense activity interspersed
with areas of no/reduced activity
Subacute thyroiditis/postpartum Reduced or no uptake Faint diffuse activity or no activity at all High thyroglobulin
Exogeneous levothyroxine Reduced or no uptake Faint diffuse activity or no activity at all Low thyroglobulin
Iodine-/amiodarone-induced Reduced or no uptake Faint diffuse activity or no activity at all High iodine in urine
of hyperthyroidism. It is an autoimmune disorder resulting Medications
from production of TSH receptor antibodies, which stimulate b Blockers. b Blockers ameliorate the symptoms of hyperthy-
thyroid gland growth and thyroid hormone synthesis and roidism that are caused by increased b-adrenergic tone .
release. Ophthalmopathy and pretibial myxedema are addi- These include palpitations, tachycardia, tremor, anxiety, and
tional autoimmune manifestations of Graves’ disease. heat intolerance. Thus, a b blocker should be started in most
Other diagnoses that should be considered include toxic patients as soon as the diagnosis of hyperthyroidism is made.
adenoma/toxic multinodular goiter, iodine-induced hyper-
thyroidism, and subacute thyroiditis. Toxic adenoma and Antithyroid drugs or thionamides. Antithyroid drugs or thi-
toxic multinodular goiter are the result of hyperplasia of thy- onamides are often started in patients with Graves’ hyper-
roid follicular cells whose functional capacity is independent thyroidism to attain a euthyroid state rapidly in preparation
of regulation by TSH. Activating somatic mutations of the for radioiodine therapy or thyroidectomy. However, patients
genes for the TSH receptor have been identified in both toxic who want to avoid or defer ablative therapy with radioiodine
adenomas and nodules of toxic multinodular goiters [17,18]. or surgery can continue thionamides for prolonged periods.
Although uncommon, iodine-induced hyperthyroidism can Although hyperthyroidism can almost always be controlled
develop after an iodine load, for example, after administra- as long as the drug is taken, there is only a modest hope
tion of contrast agents used for angiography or computed to- of attaining a permanent remission, which is about 20% to
mography or iodine-rich drugs such as amiodarone [19–21]. 30% within 1 to 2 years. It is also important to note that thi-
onamide therapy may have a negative effect on the efficacy
of subsequent radioactive iodine therapy. Methimazole
• How should this patient with Graves’ disease be and propylthiouracil (PTU) are the thionamides used to
treated? treat Graves’ hyperthyroidism. Methimazole is usually pre-
ferred because of its longer duration of action, allowing for
once-daily dosing, more rapid efficacy, and lower incidence
The therapeutic approach to Graves’ hyperthyroidism con- of side effects. PTU is preferred during pregnancy because
sists of rapid amelioration of symptoms with a b blocker and of the potential teratogenic effects of methimazole. Patients
measures aimed at decreasing thyroid hormone synthesis: should have their thyroid function assessed at 4- to 6-week
the administration of antithyroid drugs, radioactive iodine intervals until stabilized on maintenance antithyroid drug
ablation, or surgery . In a randomized prospective trial therapy. Potential significant side effects of thionamides
comparing these 3 therapies, each was equally effective in include skin rash, agranulocytosis, and hepatotoxicity.
normalizing serum thyroid hormone concentrations within
6 weeks . The risk of relapse was highest with antithy- Iodinated contrast agents and iodine. Patients with severe
roid drugs and lowest with surgery. hyperthyroidism or those who are allergic to antithyroid
In all types of treatment, initial monitoring should con- drugs may benefit from alternative medical therapies. The
sist of periodic clinical assessment and measurements of oral radiocontrast agents sodium ipodate and iopanoic acid
serum T4 and sometimes T3 levels. Serum TSH concentration are potent inhibitors of the peripheral conversion of T4 to T3.
may remain low for several weeks or even months after the They are not used as primary therapy because of possible in-
patient becomes euthyroid. duction of resistant hyperthyroidism. However, when given
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16 50 10
14 40 8
12 30 6
10 20 4
8 10 2 Normal
6 0 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 150
Days from onset of symptoms
Figure. Course of subacute thyroiditis. FTI = free thyroxine index; TG = thyroglobulin; TSH = thyroid-stimulating hormone.
(Reprinted with permission from DeGroot LJ, Larsen PR, Hennemann G. Acute and subacute thyroiditis. In: The thyroid and its
diseases. 6th ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1996:705.)
in combination with antithyroid drugs, they can rapidly However, there are patients in whom it may be reason-
ameliorate severe hyperthyroidism and can also be used to able to delay radioiodine (or surgery), and therefore anti-
prepare a hyperthyroid patient for early surgery. thyroid drugs are the treatment of choice. Included in this
group are patients with mild hyperthyroidism and patients
Other medications. A number of other medications have with small goiters or with goiters that shrink during thio-
been used in the management of hyperthyroidism, includ- namide therapy. If radioiodine is chosen, the patient must be
ing the following: comfortable with the decision to ablate the thyroid, which in
most cases will result in permanent hypothyroidism.
• Glucocorticoids inhibit peripheral T4 to T3 conver-
Physicians and patients must also be aware that radioio-
sion and, in patients with Graves’ hyperthyroidism,
dine therapy may be associated with an increased risk of the
reduce thyroid hormone secretion. They have been
development or worsening of Graves’ ophthalmopathy .
used in patients with severe hyperthyroidism and
However, ophthalmopathy did not progress in a study of
patients with minimal ophthalmopathy who were carefully
• Lithium blocks thyroid hormone release, but its use monitored to avoid hypothyroidism . Some physicians
has been limited by its toxicity advocate the use of glucocorticoids at the time of radioiodine
• Cholestyramine, given in a dose of 4 g 4 times daily treatment to prevent such effects .
with methimazole, lowers serum T4 and T3 concen- Others suggest that radioactive iodine may not be the
trations more rapidly than methimazole alone treatment of choice in patients with significant ophthalmop-
athy. However, careful control of thyroid function before
Radioactive Iodine Ablation and after therapy and cessation of smoking by the patient
Ablation with radioiodine is widely used for the treatment may minimize ocular changes.
of Graves’ hyperthyroidism. It is the therapy of choice in the Radioactive iodine may be given as primary therapy to
United States, selected by approximately 70% of thyroid spe- patients with well-tolerated hyperthyroidism. In compari-
cialists . It is considerably less popular in Europe (22%) son, patients who are not tolerating hyperthyroidism well,
and Japan (11%). are elderly, or have underlying heart disease are usually
302 JCOM June 2008 Vol. 15, No. 6 www.turner-white.com
Table 4. Comparison of Various Treatment Options for Graves’ Hyperthyroidism
Treatment Advantages Disadvantages
Thionamides Chance of permanent remission Minor side effects: rash, hives, arthralgias, fever, gastrointes-
Avoids permanent hypothyroidism tinal symptoms
Lower cost Low risk of agranulocytosis
Risk of fetal goiter and hypothyroidism if pregnant
Frequent visits to the physician
Radioactive iodine therapy Permanent resolution of hyperthyroidism Permanent hypothyroidism
Radiation precautions for several days after treatment; avoid
contact with young children and pregnant women
Surgery Rapid, permanent cure of hyperthyroidism Permanent hypothyroidism
Risk of hypoparathyroidism, recurrent laryngeal nerve dam-
age, and general anesthesia
Adapted with permission from Ross DS. Treatment of Graves’ hyperthyroidism. In: Rose BD, editor. UptoDate. Waltham (MA): UptoDate; 2008.
Copyright 2008, UptoDate, Inc. For more information, visit www.uptodate.com.
pretreated with an antithyroid drug to ameliorate hyperthy- in patients who have an obstructive goiter or a very large
roidism before radioactive iodine treatment. goiter, in pregnant women who are allergic to antithyroid
The goal of radioactive iodine therapy is destruction of drugs, and in patients who have allergies or poor compliance
the gland, with the early development of hypothyroidism. on antithyroid drugs but refuse radioactive iodine. Surgery
This eliminates the risk of recurrent hyperthyroidism. On the would also be indicated if there were a coexisting suspicious
other hand, some physicians prefer lower doses of radioactive or malignant thyroid nodule. However, most thyroid nodules
iodine with the aim of achieving a euthyroid state while low- associated with Graves’ disease are benign, in which case
ering the risk of early hypothyroidism . However, many of surgery would not be recommended . Patients who want
these patients have persistent subclinical or overt hyperthy- rapid restoration of euthyroidism, are concerned about radio-
roidism. Furthermore, there is a risk of both recurrent overt activity, or have had an adverse effect with thionamide drugs
hyperthyroidism and insidious-onset late hypothyroidism. may also prefer surgery.
Approximately 20% of patients fail the first radioactive Thyroidectomy during pregnancy may be necessary in
iodine treatment and require a subsequent dose. These pa- women who cannot tolerate antithyroid drugs because of
tients usually have more severe hyperthyroidism or larger allergy or agranulocytosis. The indications for surgery are
goiters. similar to those in nonpregnant women and men. Table 4
summarizes and compares treatment options for Graves’
Radioactive iodine therapy in toxic adenoma or toxic multi- hyperthyroidism.
nodular goiter. Depending upon patient preference, either ra-
dioactive iodine therapy or surgery is the treatment of choice Case Continued
for toxic adenoma or toxic multinodular goiter. An occasional The patient is started on methimazole, and her hy-
patient can be managed, if preferred or necessary for other perthyroidism is well controlled with this treatment.
reasons, with antithyroid drugs. One year later she presents to the emergency department
Radioactive iodine therapy is less controversial in pa- with dyspnea, palpitations, fever, tremor, and agitation.
tients with a toxic adenoma or toxic multinodular goiter. Thyroid function tests show results consistent with severe
Areas of focal autonomy take up radioiodine well, while hyperthyroidism. She also has atrial fibrillation with rapid
uptake is limited in adjacent and contralateral thyroid tis- ventricular response. Upon questioning, the patient reports
sue that has been suppressed by the hyperthyroid state. As that she has not taken her thyroid medication for a while,
a result, radioiodine tends to destroy only the autonomous since she ran out.
areas, and most patients remain euthyroid after radioiodine
• What does the patient’s presentation suggest?
With the availability of other options, surgery is a less popular
therapy for Graves’ hyperthyroidism. It is primarily indicated Patients with severe and life-threatening thyrotoxicosis
www.turner-white.com Vol. 15, No. 6 June 2008 JCOM 303
typically have an exaggeration of the usual symptoms of may not be her best long-term therapy option. Definitive
hyperthyroidism. This type of presentation is usually called therapy with radioactive iodine treatment may be a better
thyroid storm. choice for this patient.
Cardiovascular symptoms include severe tachycardia
along with congestive heart failure in many patients. Hyper- Corresponding author: Elias S. Siraj, MD, Associate Professor of Medi-
pyrexia to 104ºF to 106ºF is common. Agitation, delirium, cine, Temple University Hospital, 3322 N. Broad St., Philadelphia, PA
psychosis, stupor, or coma are common and are considered 19140.
by many to be essential to the diagnosis. Severe nausea,
vomiting, or diarrhea, and hepatic failure with jaundice can Financial disclosures: None.
Although thyroid storm can develop in patients with references
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Copyright 2008 by Turner White Communications Inc., Wayne, PA. All rights reserved.
www.turner-white.com Vol. 15, No. 6 June 2008 JCOM 305
Cme evALUAtioN: Update on the diagnosis and treatment of Hyperthyroidism
DIRECTIONS: Each of the questions below is followed by several possible answers. Select the ONE lettered answer
that is BEST in each case and circle the corresponding letter on the answer sheet.
1. In deciding whether to treat subclinical hyperthyroidism, 4. Thyroidectomy in hyperthyroidism is indicated in all of
all of the following factors are important EXCEPT the following cases EXCEPT
A. Presence of cardiac complications A. Patients with thyroid storm
B. Presence of osteopenia/osteoporosis B. Patients with a coexisting suspicious or malignant
C. Presence of thyroid nodules nodule
D. Age C. Patients with obstructive goiter
E. Thyroid-stimulating hormone level D. Pregnant women allergic to antithyroid drugs
2. All of the following could be manifestations of subacute 5. In regard to thyroid storm, all of the following are true
thyroiditis EXCEPT EXCEPT
A. Hyperthyroidism A. Patients may present with congestive heart failure
B. Hypothyroidism B. Usually there is an identifiable precipitating factor
C. Pretibial myxedema C. Blocking the conversion of T4 to T3 is an important
D. Thyroid pain and tenderness part of the treatment
D. The incidence of surgically induced thyroid storm
3. All of the following regarding radioactive iodine therapy has increased recently
in Graves’ disease are true EXCEPT
A. It is the most widely used therapy in the United
B. It can lead to agranulocytosis
C. It may be associated with worsening ophthalmopa-
D. It results in permanent hypothyroidism in most
306 JCOM June 2008 Vol. 15, No. 6 www.turner-white.com
evALUAtioN Form: Update on the diagnosis and treatment of Hyperthyroidism
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