lot has been happening with creoles in education in Australia over
the past few years, both with Kriol, spoken in the Northern Territory
and the Kimberley region of Western Australia, and with Torres Strait
Creole, spoken in the Torres Strait Islands and the northern tip
reports and articles appeared showing that negative attitudes towards
the creoles have had a detrimental effect on the education of Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander children. These led to calls for a change
in perspective to allow a place for creoles in the education system,
and in other areas as well, such as the health and legal systems.
some recent reports are outlined, and then some of the resources
which have come out to help teachers and teacher trainers. Following
this is some recent news from different creole-speaking areas, and
then a listing theses and publications.
survey of attitudes to Kriol in the Halls Creek area by Margaret
This is a detailed report of a survey conducted last year to find
out people’s attitudes to several issues regarding Kriol.
The author talked to three old people (ranging in age from their
50’s to 70’s) and four children (6-8), and interviewed
14 people (in their 30’s and 40’s), using a questionnaire.
Some of the findings from the interviews were that many people are
not familiar with the term “creole” and call their way
of speaking “Pidgin English” or “broken-down English”.
There were differing opinions about whether Kriol is a separate
language or a deficient form of English. For example, one person
said it’s “an Aboriginal language”, while another
said “it’s just lazy English”. However, most people
agreed that Kriol is not mutually intelligible with English.
regard to using Kriol in schools, there were many strong opinions
on both sides: About half of the people surveyed thought that children
should speak and read and write in Kriol at school, while the other
half were strongly opposed to this. To quote from one reply given
in the report (p.27): “At school, children should learn Standard
English. At home or with their friends, that’s another thing.
Schools should be educating people in the proper manner–teaching
Kriol would be a waste of public funds.” Yet, another person
said (p.28): “You need to have Kriol for the little kids so
they can understand. They can talk it and read it and write it so
they get confident.”
expressed both positive and negative attitudes towards using Kriol
at work. Some said it was essential for efficient communication
at the local level, while others said it can cause confusion.
majority of people wanted to hear Kriol on the radio, along with
traditional Aboriginal languages. They wanted their children to
speak traditional languages most of all, but many also wanted them
to speak Kriol and English in appropriate contexts.
of the report of the 1990/1991 Barkly and Sandover language in education
survey by Robert Hoogenraad (1992).
is a large summary of an even larger report of a survey of vernacular
and English language needs in education in the Barkly and Sandover
area of the Northern Territory, and includes an Aboriginal language
census. The survey included discussions with staff of the NT Education
Department and with Aborig-inal people at nearly 100 places. One
of the many recommendations of this report is for “an integrated
approach to language in the Aboriginal classroom”. Here are
are a number of cogent reasons why the language curriculum for
the Aboriginal classroom must treat English, the vernacular (Aboriginal
English, Kriol or an Aboriginal Language), and the traditional
Aboriginal language of the community together:
• The language of classroom management has to be one that
the teacher, assistant teacher and pupils understand and accept…
• Ideally, the language of instruction has to be a language
that both the teacher and pupils have a very good command of:
that implies the vernacular for a considerable period of the child’s
• In teaching English, including English literacy, the teacher
must start from a thorough understanding of the child's existing
• This implies both research to learn more about the vernaculars
in use in school communities, and in-service training for teachers
in the techniques of teaching English as a foreign language or
1b of the report concerns a re-examination of language policy in
Aboriginal education, as follows:
needs to be a re-evaluation of the role in Aboriginal education
of English and the vernaculars, ie Aboriginal languages, Kriol
or a creolised variety of Aboriginal English…
In developing language policy for Aboriginal schools:
• good Standard English and English literacy need to be
recognised as the central goal;
• English and Aboriginal languages need to be given equality
• the legitimacy of the community’s vernacular language,
the language in everyday use, needs to be explicitly recognised,
whether that be an Aboriginal language, Kriol or a creolised variety
of Aboriginal English, in order to ensure that the child's identity
is not being undermined.
extent of the use of Kriol, other creole varieties and varieties
of Aboriginal English by schoolchildren in the Northern Territory
and its implications for access to English literacy by Mari
is the report of a Project of National Significance, funded by the
Australian Department of Employment, Education and Training (DEET).
The Executive Summary of the report is given here:
purpose of this report is to identify children who are prevented
equity of access to English literacy because they are speakers
of creole languages or Aboriginal English, and to indicate ways
to redress this inequity. The survey of children documented in
this report was conducted in the Northern Territory, but much
of the report would reflect the situation in other States where
a creole or Aboriginal English is spoken. The main points of the
In Aboriginal communities in the NT the first language of children
is either an ancestral Aboriginal language, a creole or Aboriginal
English. None of these children speak Standard Australian English
as a first language.
2. In schools in other areas, including major urban centres, many
Aboriginal children do not speak Standard Australian English as
their first language.
3. In many schools where none of the children speak Standard Australian
English as a first language, there is no provision for teaching
English as a foreign or second language.
4. Few teachers have training in Teaching English as a Foreign
or Second language, few have any knowledge of Aboriginal languages,
or linguistic theory in relation to education.
5. Teaching English to Kriol or Aboriginal English speaking children
requires particular training which is specific to that task, because
of the particular history of those varieties and the misinformation
that has been generated about them and is still in circulation.
This training is not currently provided.
main recommendations of this report are:
1. More information to be made available to counteract general
misunderstanding about the nature of creole and creole-related
dialects of English
2. An extensive increase in the provision of language-related
professional development programs for teachers of Aboriginal children.
3. Regular negotiation and discussion with communities where creoles
and Aboriginal English are spoken, in particular to ensure that
any programs to enhance equity of access
to English literacy do not conflict with community aspirations
for maintenance of ancestral languages.
report points out some of the problems with negative attitudes towards
major problem for teachers of Kriol and Aboriginal English speaking
children is that of attitudes of non-Aboriginal people. Throughout
the areas where such varieties are spoken there is intense prejudice
towards them. I have heard Kriol described as “gibberish”
by a long term council employee in Barunga, as “shit language”
by a long-term resident of Daly River, as “rubbish English”
by a school principal in a creole-speaking area. In casual conversation
with people in the NT, whenever I made the mistake of talking
about my work, I was accused of encouraging the use of sub-standard
English, to the detriment of both Aboriginal children and the
on this occurs later in the report (pp.32-33):
of the most important factors affecting children who are speakers
of Kriol or Aboriginal English is the attitude of others toward
those varieties. In considering the education of such children,
the attitude of their teachers is highly significant. In many
cases, educators are committed to teaching such children that
the variety they speak is unacceptable. At worst, their language
is simply denied. When children speak to a teacher in Kriol the
teacher may appear to not hear what is said and simply ignore
common factor throughout all the schools I visited was the lack
of interest demonstrated by teachers in the language of the children.
Apart from Barunga, not in any of the schools where children spoke
Kriol did any of the non-Aboriginal teachers claim to have made
any deliberate attempts to learn about Kriol or to learn to speak
it… The lack of knowledge about Kriol, to which many teachers
openly admitted, is a matter of some concern and one that needs
to be addressed.
for teachers and teacher trainers
English language in Kimberley schools (FELIKS): Professional development
course for primary schools (Catholic Educa-tion Office, Broom,
This is a kit designed for running a course to train teachers about
Kriol and Aboriginal English. It was developed by Joyce Hudson,
Rosalind Berry and others on the “Language Team”. Its
ultimate aim is to “provide teachers
in the Kimberley with skills and support” in order to teach
Standard Australian English (SAE) to speakers of Kriol and Aboriginal
course is divided into seven sessions, normally run over 2 days:
2. How the meaning of words affects communication
3. Dialects, pidgins and creoles
4. Socially appropriate language
5. How sounds affect communication
6. Differences between English and Kriol grammar
first session shows participants that Kriol is a valid language
and Aboriginal English is a valid dialect of English; they are not
just “poor English”. It also aims to make participants
aware of the differences between these varieties and SAE, and of
the potential for miscommunication when these differences are not
second session focusses on differ-ences in meaning of similar words
in the different varieties. The third session emphasizes the importance
of control of both SAE and Kriol/Aboriginal English, and teaches
some sociolinguistic terms such as pidgin, creole and speech continuum.
Session 4 aims to make participants understand that each of these
varieties can be used appropriately in different contexts, and that
it is important to teach children to be able to switch between them.
5 concentrates on sounds and pronunciation of Kriol/Aboriginal English
compared to SAE, and session 6 on grammatical features. The final
session is a workshop to identify ways in which FELIKS strategies
can be used in the schools and discuss various aspects of the course.
FELIKS kit includes a manual for presenters, audio and video tapes,
and masters for overhead transparencies, participants’ booklets
and games handouts. The manual contains Background Notes and a section
for each session, beginning with the objectives, a pre-reading list,
lists of resources and equipment, an outline of necessary steps
for preparation, and a list of references. The text for presenters
includes a detailed outline of the content, cues for using overheads
and tapes, and descriptions of group activities and games.
a most valuable resource and has already been used quite widely
What is it, who speaks it and what’s it got to do with me?
by Mari Rhydwen (1992)
is a draft of a booklet meant for teachers, providing background
information about Kriol and other creole languages. It helps new
teachers to recognize when children are speaking Kriol, and explains
its relationship to Aboriginal English. Some phonological, lexical
and grammatical differences between Kriol and Standard Australian
English (SAE) are described. Here is a quotation relating to attitudes
is often described as a stigmatised language. This means that
it is treated as if it is a matter of disgrace and is reflected
by the fact that people may refer to it as a “rubbish”
or “bastard” language. One of the reasons for this,
and many other pidgins and creoles, not just Kriol, are stigmatised,
goes back to the history of such languages. They are the languages
of the less powerful groups, the slaves, the indentured workers,
the colonised and it is not only the languages but the customs
and beliefs of such people which are often despised or ridiculed.
Whilst, nowadays, people may be more accepting of Aboriginal culture
in general, Kriol continues to be regarded as an inferior language,
both by non-Aboriginal people, who are unaware of its complexities,
and by Kriol speakers themselves who have been scorned, ridiculed
or abused because of the language they speak. These days, our
knowledge of the origins of such lan-guages, their history as
intelligent and creative responses to racism and oppression, enables
us to recognise the importance of reviewing popular attitudes
towards them as imperfect forms of language and to respect the
languages themselves and the people for whom they are the ‘mother
result of this ignorance and stigmatization is that many Kriol
speakers continue to feel ashamed of speaking Kriol in the presence
of non-Aboriginal people. Children who speak it as their first
language may interpret attempts by teachers to teach them English
as attempts to deny their language and, as a result, will suffer
from loss of self-esteem. Moreover they may rebel against what
they see as “put downs” of their language by refusing
to adopt the use of English…
is therefore important for teachers to openly acknowledge the
validity of the children's language and not to expect that it
will be replaced by English.
booklet also includes suggestions about ways of teaching SAE to
Kriol speakers, and a section with questions and comments from teachers.
Indigenous Languages Framework
national curriculum for a Year 11-12 subject on Aboriginal languages
is being developed by the Senior Secondary Assess-ment Board of
South Australia. A textbook is being trialled this year at a few
schools. Chapter 10 is on “Aboriginal English and Australian
creoles”. It describes the origins of creole languages in
general and of NT Kriol and Torres Strait Creole in particular,
giving examples of some of their features. Some other creoles around
the world are mentioned, and attitudes towards creoles are discussed.
comes to school: Promoting literacy among speakers of Aboriginal
English and Australian Creoles
32 page colour booklet was produced in 1994 by the Department of
Employment, Education and Training (DEET) as a public awareness
campaign for teachers and parents. It defines terms such as pidgin,
creole and dialect, and provides some information on origins of
Aboriginal English and Australian creoles. There is a section (on
pp.18-19) about Joyce Hudson and the FELIKS course (described above).
is also a description of the Kriol-English bilingual program at
Barunga in the Northern Territory (pp.24-25), as described in PACE
Newsletter 1. The rationale for the program is given as follows:
It respects Kriol as the children’s mother tongue. The use
of Kriol as a language of instruction in school supports their
pride in themselves and their language.
• It supports families in teaching the children their own
language and culture.
• It helps children understand things better when they can
talk about them first in Kriol, in most cases their mother tongue.
• It helps children understand the differences between Kriol
and English. This helps them learn more about English and how
to use it properly.
is also given about the school’s language production centre
which supports the bilingual program by producing books and other
reading materials developed by Aboriginal teachers and literacy
section, “How does it work?” is reproduced here:
in pre-school have a mostly Kriol program. The English component
… introduces students to types of oral English they will
use at school (eg commands, requests, questions and answers, story
early childhood program (the first three school years) introduces
literacy in Kriol. The proportion of time devoted to Kriol learning
decreases during primary school and vice versa with English.
effort is made to keep the two languages identified and separate
through strategies such as having separate workbooks, exercise
books and display areas. Teachers are advised not to mix the languages
in one lesson, to point out differences between the two languages
whenever appropriate and to explain the reasons for using the
appearance of Langwij comes to school was widely reported
in the media, sparking a great deal of interest, with both positive
and negative responses to the suggested role of Aboriginal English
and Creoles in schools. In some cases, however, media reports made
serious mistakes–for example, saying that Aboriginal children
in Brisbane speak Kriol. The booklet has been criticized by some
teachers and linguists for not being clear enough in distinguishing
varieties of Aboriginal English and creoles.
following letter appeared in The Bulletin, 2 August 1994,
soon after the release of the booklet Langwij comes to school
Aborigines to preserve and learn their indigenous tribal
languages (along with correct Australian English) by all means
(B, July 12). But why linguistically cleanse Pidgin English by
first calling it Creole (technically correct, but an American
term, if of French/Spanish ancestry) and then changing the spelling
to allegedly Australianise it to “Kriol”? And then
actively teach it as a legitimate language!
mongrel “language” complete with mon-grelised spelling–at
best–a regional useful-ness…just what our young Aborigines
need if they’re to become politicians or journalists. Now
is the arzole, or assol, or rektum?
from Ngukurr (Roper River) replied as follows:
are full-blood Aborigines and have lived at Ngukurr Roper River
since our childhood. Creoles are fully developed, complete languages.
The linguistic term creole is used for languages which developed
during colonial time as a means of communication between Europeans
is not a mongrel language, as it has its own grammar. Kriol is
part of our culture here at Ngukurr; by that we mean we speak
it everywhere–at home, health clinic, office, hunting, communicating
with nearby communities and at school as a language of instruction.
At public meetings it is used to explain the difficult issues
discussed by politicians. We have many books which were translated
by Aboriginals whose mother tongue is Kriol.
started at Roper River at the beginning of this century, when
200 people from 7 language groups settled at the mission. Kriol
grew up from the pidgin language because different language groups
had to communicate with each other, especially in the dormitories
where the children were kept.
the Kriol speakers of Ngukurr Roper River are proud to keep Kriol
as part of our Aboriginal identity and cultural heritage.
If Kriol is a mongrel language, what about English with its Romance
and Germanic roots?
letter is signed by 79 people from Ngukurr. (Thanks to Dany Adone
for a copy of the letter.)
from around Australia
news from creole-speaking areas of Australia shows that both Northern
Territory Creole (Kriol) and Torres Strait Creole are becoming more
and more recognised as languages in their own right, and not just
“broken English”. The evidence is in three areas: training
of creole interpreters, acceptance of creole in legal contexts as
being distinct from English, and finally, use of creoles for various
activities in school education.
the Northern Territory:
the end of last year, Denise Angelo, from the Katherine Regional
Aboriginal Language Centre (KRALC) sent in the following report:
was included in KRALC’s ‘brief’ as a result of
a vote at the 1993 AGM. It was agreed that Kriol is an Aboriginal
language (ie its speakers are Aboriginal); that virtually no services
are easily accessible to Kriol speakers (education, law, health,
social security, etc); and that KRALC move to secure recognition
of Kriol and services for Kriol speakers (ie interpreting).”
a phone conversation with the editor on 24 November 1995, Denise
provided an update. Here is a summary of that information:
Kriol interpreting course, run by Batchelor College, was held
this year at the Katherine Regional Aboriginal Language Centre
(KRALC). It was taught by Denise Angelo and Prudy McLaughlin.
Five students will be going for para professional accreditation
from NAATI (National Association for Accreditation of Translators
and Interpreters). The emphasis of the course has been Kriol-English
interpreting in legal and medical contexts, but it is envisaged
that the trainees will also be involved in other areas, such as
land claims. Also, as part of the course, teaching materials in
Kriol have been developed for future use.
trainees have already been involved in work experience, travelling
with a speech therapist on community visits. The speech therapist
has also been successful in getting funds from the Northern Territory
Health Department for a part-time Kriol interpreter to assist
with diagnoses. Two trainees will also undertake one week’s
work experience in December in the Supreme Court in Darwin, along
with two YolNu language interpreting students.
the lead up to the interpreting course, KRALC received a grant
from the Department of Primary Industry’s Rural Access Program
for a project to produce illustrative word lists to help in interpreting.
Six booklets are presently going to print on the following topics:
personal finance, health, law, education, social security and
addition, the Health Department has started to pay for Kriol translations
of major health issues, such as AIDS testing and women’s
health. Written translations are accompanied by a cassette recording
of the same material to overcome literacy problems.
On several occasions, Kriol interpreters were used in the Magistrate’s
Court and the Family Court in Katherine, explaining bond and bail
conditions, and helping defendants make pleas. Aboriginal Legal
Aid has also been using the interpreting students in the cells
and interview rooms before court appearances.
McLaughlin of KRALC was asked by Aboriginal Legal Aid in Katherine
to give advice regarding an Aboriginal defendant’s understanding
of English. In the Magistrate’s Court in Katherine in August
1995, she gave evidence that the man, who broke a good behaviour
bond, could not have fully understood the bond conditions explained
to him in English and found in the written bond document. As a
result of this evidence, the breach of bond charge was dropped.
This appears to be the first time in the Northern Territory that
a successful defence has been based on expert linguistic evidence
proving that a defendant could not fully understand English.
another consultancy for Aboriginal Legal Aid earlier in the year,
Denise Angelo showed that a Kriol-speaking man could not have
understood the police caution given to him in English. This led
to the case against the man being dropped.
there has been a demand for introductory courses in Kriol from
non-Aboriginal people living in Katherine. This year classes for
8 students were taught by the interpreting trainees at KRALC,
using both the SIL materials (An Introduction to Con-versational
Creole by J.R. & J.L. Sandefur [Work Papers of SIL-AAB,
Series B, Volume 5, Darwin, 1981]) and some of their own activities.
KRALC linguists also provided some input.
the Barunga C.E.C. [Community Education Centre] (where there is
a Kriol-English bilingual program), the FELIKS course (described
above) was adapted for in-service training for teachers by KRALC
and the Barunga teacher linguist. KRALC, in conjunction with the
Barunga C.E.C., is looking at developing classroom materials for
targeting English from the NT Kriol perspective.
C.E.C. also obtained a grant through the Commonwealth Schools
Program to investigate children’s language–both English
and Kriol. One research question is whether children’s Kriol
is different from adults’, and if so, what are the reasons.
Is it decreolization, or just children’s language or the
result of English language learning?
Family Court judges came to Bachelor College to assist in the
training of the Kriol (and YolNu) interpreters described above.
year, the “Aboriginal Languages Fortnight” is an important
part of the course of studies for Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander students at Batchelor College enrolled in the School
of Education Studies and at the Centre for Australian Languages
and Linguistics (CALL). During this time, students do work of
their choice on their own languages. In 1995, for the first time
some urban students from Katherine who speak English as their
mother tongue decided to learn Kriol for their language studies.
Nine students studied with language workers from KRALC. This is
a significant change, as English speakers often have the most
negative attitudes towards Kriol.
a number of town organizations in Katherine are now starting to
put out Kriol/English newsletters which are prepared by the KRALC
team, eg the Aboriginal Cultural Centre: Living with Alcohol.
more information, contact:
Angelo and Prudy McLaughlin
PO Box 89
Katherine, NT 0851
courses for Kriol interpreting have run for two years now, taught
by Dagmar Dixon of the Central Metropolitan College of Technical
and Further Education (TAFE) in Perth. Last year (1994) courses
were held at Derby and Fitzroy Crossing, with Eirlys Richards teaching
the Kriol components. Three students were accredited at the para
professional level by NAATI (National Association for Accreditation
of Translators and Interpreters). This year a course was held at
Halls Creek, with Margaret Sefton teaching the Kriol component.
Four students have similarly been recommended for accredit-ation.
Next year, another Kriol interpreting course is planned for Halls
Creek and for the first time at Turkey Creek (for the Warmum community).
for travel and other costs for the courses has come from DEET, TAFE
and the Attorney General’s Department in Canberra (following
recommendations from the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths
course was started off with a workshop on Kriol awareness for the
trainees, adapting the FELIKS materials. The usual TAFE materials
have been also adapted for teaching interpreting in Kriol and other
Aboriginal languages. The existing four modules were divided into
six blocks or units, involving 300 hours of instruction. The course
is written in uncomplicated English for easy adaptation to the other
languages. The trial package was used for the previous courses and
the final product will be ready for next year.
FELIKS (Fostering English Language in Kimberley Schools) in service
course for teachers was started in 1991. By 1994, the course had
been presented at all 13 Catholic schools in the Kimberley. This
year, 40 new teachers went through the course, and updates were
presented for all schools at three different centres in the region.
from the Western Australia Education Department were trained as
FELIKS presenters in 1994 and 1995 and this year they presented
the course at 17 schools.
year the first issue of FELIKSnews appeared, edited by
Rosalind Berry and Joyce Hudson. It contains reports and stories
from teachers, games and other ideas for classroom activities, and
other useful information for teachers of Kriol-speaking students.
their updates of FELIKS, Joyce and Rosalind have been talking about
what they call the “code-switching stairway” –
four steps towards learning Standard Australian English and appropriate
code-switching between it and Kriol. This issue of the FELIKSnews
talks about the first two steps: awareness and separation.
The first step involves teachers, teaching assistants and students
becoming aware of the presence of the different languages spoken
in the community and realizing that no language is intrinsically
better than any other. The second step involves focussing on the
linguistic differences between Standard Australian English and either
Kriol or Aboriginal English and also the differing contexts in which
each is used. (The other two steps, code-switching and control,
will be covered in later editions of the newsletter.)
other news, Joyce and Rosalind are working on a book, to be trialled
in 1996, based on FELIKS. The title is Making the jump: a resource
book for teaching English in Kimberley schools. This will certainly
be of great help to teachers in the region and other parts of Australia
further information about FELIKS or the newsletter, contact:
Berry or Joyce Hudson
Catholic Education Office
PO Box 1451
Broome, WA 6725
June/July this year, the Home Languages Project began at Injinoo
School, a campus of Bamaga School. This project involves preschool
and year 1 children whose home language is Injinoo Creole, a variety
of Torres Strait Creole, and it is better known as the “Injinoo
Creole Project”. The children are taught to read and write
in Creole first and then to translate from Creole to Standard Australian
English where it is appropriate. The separate functions of the two
language are emphasized–for example, displaying the Creole
alphabet on one side of the classroom and the English alphabet on
preschool teacher, Mary Eseli, and the year 1 teacher, Christine
Turner, are reported to be very enthusiastic about the project and
the children are apparently “really turned on to reading and
writing” since it began. Also, soon after the project started,
the year 1 children were tested as part of the “Diagnostic
Net” a state-wide test of development, and Creole as well
as English literacy were looked at. Next year, literacy in both
Creole and English will be tested and compared, and also the English
literacy level of the Injinoo children will be compared to that
of other children in the Torres Strait region.
Shnukal, who has reported on negative attitudes in other areas towards
the use Creole in schools, was hired as a consultant in the early
stages. This project, however, is fully supported by the community,
and it was the community’s idea to have children learn literacy
in both Creole and English – “the two languages walking
together”, they insisted.
May 1995 in the Supreme Court in Cairns, Helen Harper (Bachelor
College, NT) gave expert linguistic evidence in the defence of a
Torres Strait Creole speaker charged with attempted murder. The
evidence, which was accepted by the court, was an analysis of the
accused’s understanding of the police inter-view. It was concluded
that the accused did not have sufficient knowledge of English to
deal with the complexities of the questions in the interview. The
charge was reduced from attempted murder to unlawful wounding.
“Writing on the backs of the blacks: literacy, creole and
language change in the Northern Territory” by Mari Rhydwen
(PhD Thesis, Sydney University, 1994).
[not seen by the editor]
on the move: An investigation into the spread of a creole language
in Northern Australia” by Jennifer M. Munro (BA Honours thesis,
University of New England, 1995).
thesis compares the linguistic features of regional varieties of
Kriol and looks at the socio-historic background to examine the
alternate hypotheses of independent develop-ment vs language spread
languages in education edited by Deborah Hartman and John Henderson
(IAD Press, Alice Springs, 1994) contains a chapter by Christine
Nicholls entitled “Vernacular language programs and bilingual
education programs in Aboriginal Australia: Issues and ideologies”
(pp.124-34). This includes a brief discussion of research on the
Barunga Kriol-English bilingual program.
and culture in Aboriginal Australia edited by Michael Walsh
and Collin Yallop (Aboriginal Studies Press, Canberra, 1993) has
two chapters on Kriol. “Losing and gaining a language: The
story of Kriol in the Northern Territory” by John Harris (pp.145-54)
gives an account of the origins and development of Kriol as a new
Aboriginal language. “Kriol: the creation of a written language
and tool of colonialization” by Mari Rhydwen (pp.155-68) discusses
the issues involved in creole literacy–especially with regard
to the development of orthographies for different regional varieties.