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Learning and Inferencing in User Ontology for Personalized Semantic Web Services Xing Jiang Ah-Hwee Tan Nanyang Technological University Nanyang Technological University Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798 email@example.com firstname.lastname@example.org ABSTRACT Team League Domain ontology has been used in many Semantic Web ap- IS IS - plications. However, few applications explore the use of on- A -A A A - IS - IS tology for personalized services. This paper proposes an Inter AC Join Champion Serie ontology based user model consisting of both concepts and Milan Milan League A semantic relations to represent users’ interests. Speciﬁcally, Join we adopt a statistical approach to learning a semantic-based Join user ontology model from domain ontology and a spread- ing activation procedure for inferencing in the user ontology model. We apply the methods of learning and exploiting Figure 1: A partial domain ontology for the Italian user ontology to a semantic search engine for ﬁnding acad- soccer teams. emic publications. Our experimental results support the eﬃ- Team League (0.2) (0.5) cacy of user ontology and spreading activation theory (SAT) IS .5) for providing personalized semantic services. IS 5) (0 -A (0 -A . (0 -A (0 -A ) IS .5 IS ) .5 Join Categories and Subject Descriptors: H.3.3 [Informa- Inter AC (0.7) Champion Serie tion Search and Retrieval]: Retrieval models Milan (0.4) Milan (1.0) League (0.4) A (0.4) General Terms: Algorithm, Performance Join (0.3) Keywords: User Ontology, Spreading-Activation Theory Join (1.0) 1. INTRODUCTION Figure 2: An illustration of the user ontology. In the Semantic Web, domain ontology is commonly used to describe web resources. Containing semantics in the form domain ontology may be too general for individual’s inter- of concepts, relations and axioms, domain ontology enables ests. For instance, I can be a big fan of the AC Milan team. software agents to perform more sophisticated tasks auto- Therefore, the concept “AC Milan” is more important to me matically. Speciﬁcally, many applications have been devel- than the concept “Inter Milan”. Meanwhile, joining Cham- oped for information retrieval. For instance, Guha et al. pion League is more important to me than joining the Serie  used ontology to improve traditional web search by aug- A League. The existing user modelling methods only con- menting search results with related concepts in the ontology. sider the importance of the concepts for capturing user’s in- Although there have been many applications of domain terests. A user ontology, on the other hand, can capture all ontology, relatively few are concerned with providing per- necessary semantics from a domain ontology for user mod- sonalized information services. In this paper, we propose elling. Speciﬁcally, each concept and relation in the domain using an ontology based user model for representing a per- ontology will be given certain values for indicating user’s sonalized view of the target domain to capture a user’s in- interests. It is a personalized view of the conceptualiza- terests and a set of statistical methods for learning the user tion and is more comprehensive than the existing types of ontology. We further incorporate the proposed user ontology user models. An illustration of the user ontology is given in model and the SAT  based inferencing procedure into a Figure 2, in which concepts and relations have been given semantic search engine for searching academic publications. speciﬁc values to indicate their relevance to a user. A user ontology can be deﬁned formally as a structure 2. USER ONTOLOGY MODEL Θ = (C, R, θ, C, R) consisting of Considering the sample domain ontology given in Figure 1, • two disjoint sets C and R, whose elements cx and rxy that represents a basic conceptualization of the Italian soc- are the concepts and relations in the domain ontology, cer teams. We see that “AC Milan” and “Inter Milan” are • a function θ : θ(C|R), which assigns weights to con- Italian soccer teams belonging to diﬀerent leagues. But this cepts and relations in the domain ontology, represent- ing an individual’s view of the particular domain, Copyright is held by the author/owner. WWW 2006, May 22–26, 2006, Edinburgh, Scotland. • a vector C = [C1 , . . . , Cn ], in which Cx represents a ACM 1-59593-332-9/06/0005. user’s interests to concept cx , and keyword domain ontology user ontology Traditional Search Initial Document Keyword Based Query Engine Result 0.90 0.80 0.70 User 0.60 Spreading- Precision Final Document Concepts 0.50 Result + Activated Activation process 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 Vector C Matrix R 0.00 1 2 3 4 5 User Ontology Figure 3: The procedure for exploiting user ontology Figure 4: Average precision of the semantic search in document retrieval. engine with and without the use of user ontology in document retrieval compared with keyword based È • a matrix R = [Rxy ], in which Rxy represents a user’s interests to relation rxy and Rxy = 1. method. y cy at time ti , Ocy (ti ) = Icy (ti ), the spreading activation process can be expressed using the following formula: 3. LEARNING USER ONTOLOGY O = [E − (1 − α)RT ] −1 I, (2) 3.1 Learning Concepts of Interests where R is the relation matrix of the user ontology, α is Estimating the interest factor Cx of a user on a concept the decay factor, E is an n × n identity matrix, and O = is relatively straightforward. For instance, we can record [O1 , . . . , On ]T is the ﬁnal output vector of the spreading- the concepts of interests to the user and their frequencies activation process in which Ox is the value of concept cx when a user searches information in the web. Meanwhile, we obtained from the spreading-activation process. use a decay function , given by Cx (ti+1 ) = Cx (ti ) × δ −b , Next, the relevance factor Ox is combined with the user’s to prevent saturation of the interest factor Cx in the user long term interest factor Cx to derive a ﬁnal score Sx for the ontology. concept cx . The score strikes a balance between long time interest and current relevance. In our application, the score 3.2 Learning Relations of Interests Sx is computed by Sx = Ox + Cx × δ −b , where δ represents Learning relations of interests to a user is similar to learn- the time interval since the last query and b is a real-valued 0 constant to simulate the decay function. ing concepts of interests. Initially, an estimated value Rxy is assigned to each relation rxy . Then, an empirical value Finally, documents with high rankings in the initial list is computed for each relation by analyzing the historical and annotated with concepts with high S values are moved record. We used a Bayesian solution to compute a weighted towards the top of the list for presentation to the user. average of the initial value and the empirical value as follows: 5. EXPERIMENT Rxy = È a × R0 + F (rxy ) xy a + y F (rxy ) , (1) A semantic search engine that incorporates user ontology and SAT has been developed for searching academic publi- where a is a constant to normalize the empirical value and cation in a database. All documents collected are annotated the initial estimation, and F (rxy ) is the frequency of the using the ACM Computing Classiﬁcation System, which also relation rxy obtained from the user’s historical record. serves as the domain ontology. 5 users are involved in evaluating the user ontology’s abil- ity for providing personalized services. Each user provides 4. EXPLOITING USER ONTOLOGY two sets of queries, one for training the model and the We present a procedure (Figure 3) wherein a user ontology other for testing. We experiment with the semantic search is used to re-rank the search results of a search engine below. engine, ﬁrst using the traditional keyword based method, Similar to that of a traditional search engine, a user sub- then augmented with domain ontology, and ﬁnally enhanced mits a query consisting of keywords to the system. The with user ontology to provide recommendation for the test search engine then returns an initial list of documents ob- queries. The performance of the search engine, in terms tained using the classical keyword based search method. of the average precision of the top 10 documents retrieved, With the documents pre-annotated with concepts, we can is summarized in Figure 4. We see that the user ontology obtain a set of associated concepts besides the documents based system consistently outperforms or produces equiva- retrieved. These concepts together with their occurrence lent performance compared with the two methods, validat- frequencies form a vector I = [I1 , I2 , . . . , In ]T as the input ing our approach of using user ontology as user models in for inferencing in the user ontology, where Ix , the input to (cx x È the concept cx , is calculated by Ix = FF (c) ) , where F (cx ) the Semantic Web. cx represents the frequency of the concept cx in the initial doc- 6. REFERENCES ument list.  Anderson, R. J. A spreading activation theory of Upon receiving the input vector I, the spreading activa- memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal tion process is performed on the user ontology to infer the Behavior 22 (1983), 261–295. concepts of relevance. Using simpliﬁed SAT in which the  Guha, R., McCool, R., and Miller, E. Semantic output of a concept cy at time ti is the input of the concept search. In WWW ’03, ACM Press, pp. 700–709.
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