Administration and staff
Education philosophy and teaching practices
Classroom management and school life
Home-school relations and home environment
Children returning from abroad
Entrance into elementary school is a major
step in a child's life. Preparation begins several months in advance. A
mother attends meetings sponsored by the school that her child will
attend. The school specifies what it expects the child to know and be
able to do upon entry. Well-organized personal habits, polite use of
language, and traffic safety are among the matters emphasized.
Families make much of the new 1st grader's symbolic entry into a more
grown-up world. Congratulations and gifts are in order. Virtually all
children are outfitted with a personal desk and chair at home, a
regulation hard-sided leather backpack (which costs parents from $75 to
$150), school hats and insignia, and various supplies specified by the
The formality and seriousness of the matriculation ceremony for 1st
graders underscores the transition the children are making and the
importance that school will have in their lives. Fifth and 6th graders
join school officials and community representatives in welcoming the new
1st graders and their parents. Mothers and children dress in their best
attire. Speeches from city and school board officials and the principal
emphasize the importance of the child's first symbolic step into
Japanese school buildings are plain, but functional. Generally, they
are three-story, rectangular, concrete structures which lack central
heating or air conditioning. Room stoves are commonly used in cold
weather. The lack of decoration and furnishings is believed to help the
child focus on learning and building character. Yet all schools have
excellent educational facilities, including libraries, music rooms, art
rooms, gymnasia, and playgrounds. Seventy-five percent of public schools
have swimming pools.
Music rooms ordinarily include electric organs, pianos, xylophones,
percussion instruments of various kinds, and often a ruled blackboard
suitable for teaching music reading. Science and art rooms are similarly
The principal's office and teachers' room are on the ground floor.
The desks in the teachers' room are arranged so that the teachers of a
given grade sit facing each other with desks touching. When not in their
classrooms, teachers work and relax in this face-to-face situation. This
facilitates cooperation and coordination of effort among teachers of the
Each grade occupies a separate section or floor of the building, with
each class assigned its own room. Classrooms are uniformly rectangular
with windows on one side and a doorway on the other that opens to a
hallway running the length of the building. The rooms are crowded with
desks. Decorations are usually limited to a display of recent pupil
artwork or perhaps a tank of goldfish.
Desks are typically arranged facing the blackboard. The rows are two
seats wide and each pair of seats is usually occupied by a boy and a
girl. Also, teachers may have students rearrange their desks into a
U-shape to facilitate class discussion or into clusters of 4-6 desks for
collaborative activity in small groups.
Most public elementary schools do not have uniforms, but all require
something to identify the child as attending that particular school,
such as a school cap or badge. Some schools require students to purchase
identical athletic apparel, which is often worn during regular classes
Administration and staff
The principal and the head teacher occupy the two primary leadership
positions. Ninety-eight percent of elementary school principals are men,
and three-quarters of them are over age 55.
The principal is responsible for all school activities and plays
multiple leadership roles. Much of his time is devoted to representing
the school with local authorities, the PTA, and various outside groups.
Through regular weekly addresses to the student body, he also symbolizes
the school's authority and expectations.
The daily life of the school, however, is usually directed by the
head teacher. Ninety-seven percent of elementary school head teachers
are men, and most are between the ages of 50 and 55.
The head teacher is thoroughly knowledgeable about the entire school and
its activities. He manages the implementation of policy in regular
school activities, special projects, and other programs of the school.
His main responsibilities are administrative. He teaches only about 3
hours per week.
Head teachers get paid very little extra; the short term reward is in
the honor and respect of one's peers.
Longer term, head teacher experience is an important part of the career
path to a possible principalship.
Each class is headed by a single teacher who, with rare exceptions,
is responsible for all subjects. Teachers average 22-23 hours per week
in direct teaching activities.
They also spend considerable time working and planning together outside
Approximately 60 percent of elementary school teachers are women.
Two-thirds of all teachers are under the age of 40.
More than one-half (58 percent) of the faculty have 4-year degrees, and
approximately one-third have graduated from a junior college. Fewer than
1 percent of the teachers have graduate degrees.
Teachers teach a different grade level each year, thus gaining broad
experience with the curriculum and characteristics of all six grades. It
is common for a given teacher to teach the same group of students for 2
years in a row. Talented and experienced teachers are more frequently
assigned to the 1st grade because that stage is considered critical in
establishing children's attitudes and learning habits for the rest of
their school lives.
In all but the smallest schools, each grade level forms a working
unit for administration, instructional planning, and informal inservice
education. Teachers meet once or twice a week in grade level committees
to discuss the coming week's teaching schedule and other activities.
Each grade is led by a grade level head teacher who takes the lead in
helping new or weaker teachers with practical suggestions for improving
instruction and classroom management. Each committee prepares and
distributes a weekly or monthly newsletter to the parents of children in
that grade. The newsletter includes a report on the class's recent
activities, a detailed schedule of curriculum material to be covered,
and an inspirational message from teachers to parents.
The Japanese school year provides numerous opportunities for the
entire student body to participate in special events and ceremonies.
These are carefully planned and highly organized. They are managed
primarily by the student council and classroom representatives, with the
guidance of teachers and school tradition. Through these activities,
students work together and develop class and school identity. Classes
spend considerable energy in planning and practicing these activities.
For some time prior to such events, the regular class schedule is
relaxed to allow the necessary time for preparation.
In May, it is common to have an all-school trip to a nearby park or
cultural monument or even an overnight field trip for all students of a
given grade level. The goal is to broaden student knowledge about nature
and the world around them in an enjoyable, memorable fashion, as well as
to train students in appropriate public behavior.
The 6-week summer vacation occurs from the middle of July until the
end of August. During this period, teachers take their own holidays, but
frequently come to school to engage in in-service education and
supervise students' club activities. Student sports clubs continue to
meet, and the swimming pool may be open for student use. Although
classes are not in session, vacation homework and individual research
assignments ensure that instructional continuity is not broken. The
school also provides an extensive set of rules and recommendations to
families concerning student behavior, daily study, and play schedules
during the vacation. This guidance fosters continuity in self-discipline
and other desirable personal habits.
Autumn in Japan is closely associated with school athletic festivals.
Children eagerly anticipate their school's annual Sports Day. The entire
student body practices intricate choreographed cheers and marching
maneuvers. On the day of the event, parents and the neighborhood are
invited to watch each class compete in races and other track and field
events. All are encouraged to do their best, both for their own class
and to help the school put its best foot forward. The goals of Sports
Day are to build class and school solidarity and to encourage
wholehearted individual effort and perseverance.
The Culture Festival in the late fall or spring is another high
point. On that occasion each classroom plans and rehearses skits or
other performances and every club demonstrates or displays examples of
its activities. Every child is involved in one or more of these
activities. Families and the community are invited to attend and the
entire school endeavors to do its best.
The school year ends in March with a formal graduation or end-of-year
ceremony which is somewhat less significant than the matriculation
ceremony at the beginning of the year. Japanese culture places more
emphasis on congratulations and encouragement at the outset of a child's
educational career than upon its successful completion.
The school day begins with a 10-minute faculty meeting in the
teachers' room. Meanwhile, halls and classrooms are filled with the
clamor of students arriving and preparing for the day. Generally
speaking, children meet to walk to school together in neighborhood
groups led by the 6th grade children.
Two or three times a week, following the teachers' meeting, the
entire school gathers, either to perform morning exercises on the
athletic field or have a short assembly and receive an inspirational
message from the principal. Classroom activities begin at 8:30 a.m. with
a 15-minute morning class meeting, which is led by student monitors.
Then two class periods are followed by a 25-minute recess and two more
Lunch at 12:30 p.m. is followed by a recess which lasts 1:40 p.m.
Almost all Japanese elementary schools have a mandatory school lunch
program for which parents are assessed minimal fee. Students generally
eat in their classrooms and take turns serving their classmates.
Teachers remain with their classes during lunch.
After lunch and recess, in most schools the student body spends 20
minutes cleaning and sweeping the hallways and classrooms, an activity
deemed important for character development. (In other schools, cleaning
takes place at the end of day.) Then, after two periods of afternoon
classes, the day ends with a 10-minute class meeting. Following this,
students pack their textbooks, notebooks, and other materials into their
backpacks to carry home. No books or notebooks are left in students'
At 3:50 p.m., students scatter to school organized clubs, private
lessons, or home. Club activities include sports, music, and crafts. On
weekdays, teachers often remain until 5 or 6 p.m. to plan lessons, lead
club activities, or attend meetings. On Saturdays, school ends at noon,
after three class periods.
Education philosophy and teaching practices
Two important assumptions underlie much of Japanese elementary and
secondary education practices. One is that virtually all children have
the ability to learn well and to master the regular school curriculum.
The second is that certain habits and characteristics, such as diligence
and attention to detail, can be taught. The premise is that all children
have equal potential. Differences in student achievement are thought to
result largely from the level of effort, perseverance, and
self-discipline, not from differences in individual ability. Hence,
students in elementary schools are not grouped according to ability.
Promotion to the next grade is not based on academic achievement, but
is automatic. Neither is classroom instruction individualized according
to ability differences. However, Monbusho encourages teachers to give
extra attention and encouragement to weaker students. Students also
supplement their school work at home and at juku.
The classroom teacher capitalizes on the 1st graders' feeling of
self-importance and awe at being in school by carefully instructing them
in proper behavior and classroom routines during the first weeks of
school. These include how to rise and bow at the beginning of class, how
to sit, and how to arrange the desktop for study. In the Japanese view,
this lays a proper foundation for desirable attitudes and habits which
will continue throughout the child's school life.
Teachers in the early elementary years are not directly influenced by
the entrance examination pressure which students will face in entering
high school and college. Thus, they have more freedom in instructional
approach than their secondary school colleagues who must prepare
students to pass entrance examinations.
Almost all elementary schools use educational television broadcasts
by NHK, the Japanese National Public Broadcasting Service. Science,
social studies, and ethics programs are the most popular. Programs are
broadcast weekly for each different grade level and are 15 minutes long.
Yearly programming schedules are issued before the beginning of the
school year so that teachers can use them in developing lesson plans.
Each trimester, NHK also publishes a teacher's text, which contains a
detailed description of each scheduled program and notes concerning how
to use it in the classroom, for each grade level. These texts are widely
available in local bookstores.
The students' attention centers around teacher and textbook. Students
learn to take notes in the 1st grade. A separate notebook is maintained
for each subject, and in it the student records the lecture or classroom
activity. Written examinations are given frequently, and homework is
assigned routinely. Report cards are issued three times a year.
Each lesson is planned according to the sequence of material in the
textbook, the teacher's manual, and the school's instructional
guidelines which in turn are based on the Monbusho course of study.
Teachers are required to cover all of the material that the course of
study mandates for each grade level.
A basic characteristic throughout elementary and secondary education
is the continuing emphasis on science and mathematics. The Japanese
consider these subjects the basic building blocks of technology, and
curriculum requirements ensure that all children receive extensive
grounding in them. Mathematics is one of the required subjects on
university entrance examinations and, hence, receives continuing
attention through all grades.
Classroom management and school life
Japanese classes are large by American standards. In 1983, the
average class size was 34 students and the legal maximum was 45. Hence
45 students may be assigned to a single class before two smaller classes
are formed. Monbusho is now midway through a plan to reduce the maximum
permitted class size from 45 to 40 by the year 1991.
Within each classroom, students are organized in small, mixed ability
groups called han. These groups of 4-6 students are cooperative
study and work units. Teachers frequently ask the class to divide into han
to work on specific assignments and have them report the results to the
class. The han is also the primary unit for discipline, chores, and
various other classroom activities.
Student monitors are an important part of Japanese classroom
management. Each day or two, a different pair of students is in charge
of calling the class to order, assisting the teacher in administrative
tasks, and encouraging classroom discipline. The monitor role is rotated
frequently so that every student in the class has the opportunity to
serve in this capacity.
Through the use of han and monitors, teachers delegate much
responsibility for classroom management and discipline to the students
themselves. Through frequent rotation of roles and responsibilities, all
students have the opportunity to gain leadership experience and develop
first-hand understanding of the importance of cooperation and mutual
effort in achieving a smoothly run classroom.
All schools have active student governments composed of elected
representatives from each 4th-6th grade class. Student government
activities reinforce school policies and give students experience in
large scale planning. Although meetings and activities are supervised by
teachers, students lead the organization. Participation in student
government also provides experience in representing one's peers, in
group decision making, and in assuming responsibility.
While Japanese classes are larger than American ones, Japanese
classrooms are more orderly. Students are more attentive and better
behaved and transitions between activities are more rapid and orderly.
The net result is significant: Japanese students spend about one-third
more time during a typical class period engaged in learning than
American students do during a typical class period.
It is important to note that this high level of organization and
discipline is achieved without strong direct exercise of authority by
The Japanese approach to classroom management and discipline is to
provide extensive training from the first day of a child's school career
in the routines and rituals which make up the classroom day. Coming to
order, preparing one's desk for study, and lining up for dismissal are
practiced repeatedly as separate routines until the entire class can
perform them quickly and automatically. The daily monitor cues the class
to perform the various routines. The teacher is, thus, freed from the
necessity of personally managing transitions. These routines allow
students to see themselves as responsible for their own behavior and
help them develop pride in conducting themselves in an orderly,
Japanese teachers rarely reprimand individual children. Instead, they
prefer to guide the class in such a way that students assume
responsibility for correcting each other's behavior. Rather than calling
an inattentive child by name and encouraging him to hurry, the teacher
typically remarks that a particular han is not ready and allows the
child's han-mates to exert peer pressure to encourage the child to take
or complete the necessary action.
In Japan, "student guidance" refers to the direction
provided by the classroom teacher to help students establish fundamental
attitudes and behaviors necessary for successful school life. Its scope
is broad, ranging from study habits to academic counseling, social
behavior, and character development. The influence of student guidance
is evident during classroom instruction and also at daily morning and
afternoon class meetings, school events and ceremonies, and periodic
teacher visits to students' homes.
Curriculum content and the sequence of instruction for each subject
and grade level are specified in considerable detail by Monbusho.
Teachers are free to incorporate supplementary teaching materials if
they believe they enhance coverage of prescribed course content.
Textbooks are written and published by commercial publishers, although
the content is based closely upon Monbusho guidelines. After careful
review to assure conformity with the prescribed courses of study, the
Ministry of Education approves textbooks for use in elementary schools.
Schools then select from among the books on the approved list. These are
purchased by the government from the commercial publishers and
distributed free of charge to children in both public and private
schools. The books become the personal property of the students.
The elementary course of study and the required number of class
periods devoted each week to each subject are summarized in table B.
B. Required Number of Class Periods Per Week and Year in Each Subject at
Each Elementary Grade Level*
Art & Handicraft
Total number of
*Each class period is 45 minutes long. Numbers in parentheses are number
of class periods required per school year.
Sources: Okuda, Shinjo. "The
Curriculum and its Contents in Secondary Education." Paper
presented at International Seminar on Educational Reform, National
Institute of Multimedia Education, Kyoto, Chiba, October 14-17, 1985,
and Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture. Course of Study for
Elementary Schools in Japan. Tokyo: Monbusho, 1983, p.122.
Japanese children spend one-fourth of their time in elementary school
mastering their own language. This is an arduous, complex task. Written
Japanese is a mixture of Chinese characters and Japanese phonetic
symbols. Three separate writing systems must be learned. Two of these
consist of 48 phonetic symbols each. The third system is composed of
approximately 2,000 Chinese symbolic characters, each of which can be
read or pronounced in several ways, depending on its context. These
characters usually are visually complex units requiring from one to
twenty brush strokes each. In regular text, Chinese characters are
combined with the phonetic symbols according to carefully prescribed
rules to form words and sentences. While the Japanese phonetic symbols
have little ambiguity in pronunciation, the Chinese characters almost
invariably have two or more possible pronunciations.
Two additional features of the Japanese language compound the
difficulty for learners. Individual words are not visually separated
from each other, and children must learn to intuit which symbols must be
grouped together to form a word. Furthermore, there are two different
styles of following text. The first is to read from left to right,
horizontally, as in Western books. The second is to read columns
vertically from top to bottom, starting with the column on the far
right, in traditional Japanese style. In Japanese language classes,
textbooks are printed vertically and children write their compositions
in similar form. In arithmetic and science, textbooks are printed
horizontally, and notebooks for these subjects must be kept in similar
During the first year of elementary school, children learn to read
and write the two 48-character phonetic systems and a few Chinese
characters. Each year thereafter, approximately 200 Chinese characters
are added, along with their various readings and rules of spelling for
common words. It is not until the end of the 9-year compulsory period
that children have mastered the approximately 2,000 characters necessary
to basic literacy--enough to permit the reading of newspapers, for
example. In learning to write, proper shaping of letters and characters
is stressed at all levels. To this end, formal training in calligraphy,
using traditional brushes and ink, is begun in the 3rd grade. The
complexity of the Japanese writing system is illustrated by figures 5
and 6, which show the Japanese phonetic letters and the Chinese symbolic
characters to be learned in the first 3 grades.
5. The Two Systems of Japanese Phonetic Letters
Figure 6. Chinese Characters To be Learned in the First Three
In addition to reading and writing, Japanese language classes
emphasize other important skills. Practice in public speaking, speaking
calmly and succinctly before a group, is a regular part of the
curriculum, starting in 1st grade.
Formal grammar is taught beginning in the 3rd grade, and by the 6th
grade has advanced through auxiliary verbs, prepositions, and
conjunctions. Thirty percent of the time in language class is devoted to
composition. Composition is taught beginning with the combination of
subject and predicate in the 2nd grade and advancing by 6th grade to
alternative styles and ways of expressing the same thought.
Social studies. The social studies curriculum stresses the
interdependence of all levels of society and the responsibility of each
individual for the collective welfare. In the 1st grade, the focus is on
the child's own school and family. In the 2nd, the emphasis shifts to
the community. At subsequent grade levels the scope expands to encompass
the city, the prefecture, the nation, and foreign countries. In the 6th
grade, students receive an overview of Japanese history and the modern
Japanese political system. They are also briefly introduced to world
geography and Japan's relations with other nations. Learning to
understand maps, graphs, and tables is stressed throughout the
elementary school period.
Arithmetic. Children in Japan are introduced to many concepts
such as decimals, fractions, and geometric figures earlier than their
American counterparts. Accuracy in computation is stressed more than the
ability to estimate.
More emphasis is placed on geometry, ratios, proportions, and reading
charts than in most American elementary schools.
Japanese arithmetic textbooks are succinct and provide little
repetition or review. Concepts and skills are typically presented only
once. The emphasis is placed on proper initial instruction and
elaboration by the teacher. It is assumed that the child will persevere
in drill and study until the concept is mastered. Teachers pace their
coverage of the material so that the entire course of study and textbook
have been covered by the end of the year and the class can proceed to
the next grade level uniformly prepared.
The number of hours devoted to arithmetic in the elementary school
curriculum is more than in American elementary schools, but not
dramatically so. Japanese children spend considerably more time studying
arithmetic, however, because of more efficient use of the class hour and
more time devoted to out-of-school effort through a combination of
homework, private tutors, and remedial or cram schools. These factors
combine to help Japanese children achieve their competitive edge in
international comparisons of achievement in mathematics.
Science. The science curriculum aims to help children develop
the ability to observe, conduct simple experiments, and learn to
appreciate and enjoy nature. Several core areas are restudied at
successive grade levels with increasing sophistication and detail.
Biology studies include the life cycle of plants and their relationship
to soil, water, and air, as well as basic anatomy and the life cycle of
animals, fish, insects, and humans.
Matter and energy are explored through the study of the properties of
gases and solutions, combustion, magnetism, light, sound, and
electricity. The earth and the universe are studied through weather and
atmospheric phenomena, geology and erosion, and the movements of the
heavenly bodies. By the end of the 6th grade, students have learned to
design and execute simple experiments and to record and describe their
Music. Music is an integral part of the elementary school core
curriculum. It includes singing, instrumental performance, and
appreciation of both Western and Japanese music. From the 1st grade,
children learn to play melodies and simple harmonies on small keyboard
and wind instruments. They also receive formal instruction in reading
music. Musical expression and improvisation of simple accompaniments are
encouraged through the use of various percussion instruments. All
children are exposed to a common core of Japanese and Western classical
works, including Bach, Handel, Beethoven, and Schubert.
Arts and handicrafts. The Japanese arts curriculum provides an
organized approach to the acquisition of some fundamental artistic
skills and to the process of artistic creation. Instruction in drawing
and painting proceeds from the use of pastel crayons to the use of
watercolors in the upper grades. Training in formal composition and the
use of special techniques such as perspective, depth and dimension, and
light and shadow begins in the 3rd grade. Printmaking starts with paper
prints in the 1 st grade and culminates in carved woodblock prints in
the 5th and 6th grades. Sculpture is approached in a similar fashion.
Beginning in the 3rd grade, students are taught to make preliminary
sketches and later to draw plans or make models for objects they wish to
Homemaking. In the 5th and 6th grades, Japanese boys and girls
receive 2 hours of instruction per week in basic homemaking skills. The
goal is to deepen children's appreciation of and participation in family
life. Children practice basic meal planning and learn how to prepare and
serve simple foods. They learn to take care of their own clothing,
including hand washing of various articles, sewing buttons, and mending
seams. They also practice making simple articles like bags and aprons
and decorating them with simple embroidery.
Physical education. The Japanese value sports and exercise,
and the government actively promotes lifelong sports activities. The
goals of the elementary school physical education curriculum are to help
children learn to enjoy games and physical exercise, grow in strength
and perseverance, and develop athletic skills, as well as become
knowledgeable about achieving and maintaining good health.
The sports program includes track and field activities, marching and
drill, soccer and basketball, gymnastics and dance. Swimming instruction
is common, and three-quarters of all elementary schools have a pool. By
the 6th grade the majority of Japanese children are competent and
confident in the water. In the cold and snowy areas of the country, ice
skating is encouraged during the winter months on rinks created by
flooding portions of the school grounds.
Health also receives considerable attention. The School Health Law
provides for annual physical examinations for all students. The health
curriculum emphasizes proper nutrition, traffic safety, and a healthy
lifestyle. In the 5th grade, students study physical growth and the
changes associated with puberty.
Moral education. Although occupying only 1 class hour per
week, moral education has a fundamental role in Japanese education. It
is a distinct area of instruction at every level of compulsory
education, and attitudes, habits, and behaviors which are consistent
with the Japanese value system are infused throughout the curriculum.
The Japanese concept of moral education is far from vague or
formless. Twenty-eight themes in six categories are covered at the
elementary level, among them:
In addition to the prescribed content, each school annually
identifies two or three central goals in moral education to be
emphasized during the year. For example, in 1985, one elementary school
chose thoughtfulness and endurance as its foci and requested all
teachers to collaborate in reinforcing these. Individual teachers, too,
often develop goals for their own classes in addition to the school's
goals. While teachers do not necessarily share a single view of moral
education, they readily accept their responsibilities in this curriculum
Unlike other subject areas in the curriculum, no textbooks are used
in moral education. Many teachers use educational television programs
expressly developed for moral education, as well as commercially
available materials, to promote student discussion on moral issues.
There is considerable latitude in this area for teachers to develop
their own approaches.
Special activities. Special activities occupy approximately 10
percent of the elementary and secondary school program: 1 hour per week
for the 1st-3rd graders and 2 hours per week for the 4th-6th graders.
These activities include all-school events such as sports and cultural
festivals, excursions, and ceremonies, as well as pupil activities such
as classroom meetings, student council meetings, and club activities.
Many of what are termed "special activities" in Japanese
education are similar to those categorized as extracurricular activities
in American education. However, in Japan these activities are more
closely integrated with the formal curriculum, tend to involve all
students, and are directed more toward character development. The
overall objective is to use these experiences to promote the
internalization of cultural values and to cultivate attitudes and habits
which lead to the individual's responsible contribution to cooperative
Home-school relations and home environment
The Parent-Teacher Association is an important locus of activity for
parents involved in the school life of their children. Mothers are
expected to attend PTA meetings. The PTA functions as a forum for the
school to explain its policies and expectations to parents and to
organize parental assistance for school activities. It rarely
contradicts the school's administration. In addition to meeting in
large, all-school forums, parents meet as a group with the classroom
teacher. Annual PTA dues range from about $9 at a public elementary
school to about $30 at a private high school.
During the first weeks of school every year, teachers visit the home
of each of their pupils to understand the family situation and study
environment. Parents visit and observe the classroom and consult with
teachers on specific days that are scheduled for such meetings. Parents
are guests at the various festivals and ceremonies held throughout the
Schools not only train children in the norms and routines of school
behavior, but are also responsible for teaching children habits expected
in the adult world, such as punctuality, neatness, and respect for
authority. Japanese parents support this function.
The school is not reticent about communicating to parents its beliefs
regarding proper parental roles in education and childrearing. For
example, schools often set boundaries for children's movements within
the neighborhood or recommend evening curfews. During summer vacation,
the PTA newsletter typically contains guidelines for parents on the
times the children should get up and go to bed and when and how long
they should study.
Studying is encouraged and supported in the Japanese home.
Ninety-eight percent of all elementary school children have their own
desks in designated study areas.
Many mothers work with their children on a daily basis, helping with
homework or drilling on lessons to be learned. Inexpensive home study
guides and drill books for all grade levels and subjects are available
at local bookstores. These are designed to supplement the government
approved texts and are indexed to pages and chapters in the official
The mother-child bond provides strong emotional support for the
child, particularly in the upper grades, as the child becomes
progressively more aware of the importance of academic achievement and
the severity of education competition. The mother reinforces this
awareness by encouraging the child to study and inducing the child to
realize that academic success is important to her and of great concern
to the family.
The Japanese elementary curriculum is cumulative and demanding. At
each grade level, children are required to learn large quantities of new
material and proceed quickly from one new concept to the next. Although
most children manage to keep reasonable pace with the instructional
objectives, some fall behind. The plight of children who have fallen
seriously behind in their studies is much discussed in Japan. These
children are termed ochikobore, literally, those who have
"fallen to the bottom" of the system. Although detailed
evidence is scarce, the problem clearly exists and receives considerable
sympathetic attention in the mass media and from the public.
Some evidence regarding the extent of the problem is found in a
recent comparative study of reading achievement among 1st and 5th-grade
children in one city in Japan, one in Taiwan, and one in the United
States. Results for the Japanese sample showed that although most
children enter 1st grade well prepared in reading, by 5th grade a
significant number of them have fallen seriously behind.
Four months after entering 1st grade, 86 percent of the children in the
sample were reading at 2nd grade level or above. However, over the next
4 years this initial lead in reading sharply diminished. When tested in
the 4th month of the 5th grade, only 27 percent of the children were
still reading above grade level, while 25 percent had fallen 2 or more
years behind. Ten percent were reading at only lst- or 2nd-grade levels.
Two important findings of this study by Harold Stevenson and his
collaborators were: "There are Japanese children with
serious difficulties in learning how to read, and the severity of their
problems is at least as great as that of American children.
A demanding curriculum and the small amount of remedial attention in
school are not the only causes of ochikobore. As in all countries, there
are diverse reasons why some children have difficulty keeping up with
their schoolwork. Differences in intellectual ability, family
environment, and personality characteristics are among the familiar
factors which account for the variation in academic achievement. The
lack of individualization of instruction compounds the plight of the
slow learner or those with other scholastic problems. Although some
teachers do provide individual assistance outside of class time for the
slowest learners, the burden of remedial education falls directly on the
Parents concerned with maximizing their children's chances for
success in school and in subsequent higher education and employment
provide whatever help with homework they can and then pay for outside
assistance as necessary. In Japan this usually takes the form of either
hiring a private tutor or, more commonly, sending the child to juku. For
many, juku provide the necessary reinforcement which enables Japanese
children to keep abreast of the demanding curriculum.
In the elementary school years, juku attendance rates rise from 6.2
percent of all 1st grade children to 30 percent of all 6th grade
Attendance rates continue to increase through lower secondary school as
A 1985 survey of juku by Monbusho reports that half of the elementary
school students who attend juku take one subject and almost 30 percent
take two. The subjects most frequently studied are Japanese language and
arithmetic. Just over 10 percent of all elementary school students
attending juku study four subjects. In effect these children are
studying the basic academic curriculum twice, once in school and then
again in juku. It is interesting to note that about 25 percent of all
elementary school students in juku are estimated to be studying English,
although it is not a required subject in elementary school.
The majority of elementary school students who attend juku attend at
least twice a week, but study for less than 1 hour at each session.
Students in the upper elementary grades have longer lessons, although
generally under 2 hours per visit.
At the elementary level, the majority of students are enrolled in
either a catch-up or preparation and review program. For many children,
the juku provide important educational services that complement
instruction provided by the formal school system.
Children returning from abroad
Japan's increasing involvement in the international community has
created problems for school-aged children who go abroad with their
parents and then re-enter the Japanese education system upon return. Not
only have they fallen behind in such academic subjects as Japanese
language, mathematics, and science, but they no longer display
traditional patterns of behavior expected in Japanese classroom life.
They are also at a disadvantage in preparing for or taking entrance
examinations for high schools and universities in Japan. This makes
overseas assignments a source of considerable anxiety for parents of
Many families faced with an overseas assignment for the father
resolve the potential problem by having the mother remain in Japan with
the youngsters so they can stay on course in the Japanese education
system. Some families take their children with them initially, but send
them home before the crucial high school or university entrance
examination years. Continuity in school and with one's group of
classmates is considered important, especially when the examination
preparation stages are reached beyond elementary school. The number of
youngsters returning to Japanese elementary and secondary schools in
1982 was 9,600.
The Ministry of Education has taken steps to deal with the problems
of students returning from abroad. In 1983, there were 74 full-time
Japanese schools worldwide (including one each in New York and Chicago)
and 95 Saturday schools (33 in the United States). Although these
schools provide a basic Japanese curriculum, most returning children
still experience difficulty in readapting to Japanese schools. Hence the
Ministry of Education has also encouraged the establishment of special
programs to assist in the reintegration of children who have returned
from abroad. In 1982, there were 124 schools in Japan with such special
programs, most of them located in Tokyo, Osaka, and the surrounding
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U.S. Dept. of Education Study