About the System
Science & Technology (S&T) has always
been an integral part of the Indian culture. Natural Philosophy
as it was termed ancient times was pursued vigorously at institutions
of higher learning. The contributions made by the scholar-scientists
Aryabhatta, Bhaskara, Brahmagupta, Dhanvantari and Nagarjuna,
to name a few, to the fields of mathematics, astronomy, medicine
and chemistry during the prehistoric period are legendary
and invaluable not only to Indian S&T but also to the
knowledge base of the humanity at large. The astronomical
observations at Jaipur and New Delhi and the Ashoka Pillar
in New Delhi stand as living testimonies to the high standards
of Indian capabilities. The dawn of the present century witnessed
great strides made by Indian scientists like Srinivasa Ramanujan,
J.C. Bose, P.C. Ray, Meghnad Saha, C.V. Raman, S.N. Bose,
Birbal Sahni, P.C. Mahalanobis and M. Visvesvaraya, who have
left indelible imprints on the world S&T scene.
The innate ability to perform creatively in
science came to be backed with an institutional set-up and
strong state support after country's independence in 1947.
Since then, the Government of India has spared no effort to
establish a modern S&T organisation in the country. India's
first Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru gave whole-hearted
support to a concerted programme for the promotion of S&T
in the country. As a result, many new S&T departments
and laboratories were set up and the pursuance of scientific
research started in an organised manner. Jawaharlal Nehru
firmly believed that Science and Technology can be the twin
tools that would help bring about social equity and economic
development to enable India join the mainstream of the world
community. This conviction was reflected in the Scientific
Policy Resolution (SPR) of 1958, the aim of which was "to
foster, promote and sustain the cultivation of sciences and
scientific research in the country and to secure for the people
all the benefits that can accrue from the acquisition and
application of scientific knowledge".
With this in view, several departments were
set up by the government with specific objectives which at
once met the immediate social needs even as they allowed the
country to leap-frog into the modern high-tech world. The
departments of Atomic Energy, Science and Technology, and
Space were thus among the first S&T departments in the
country with the Prime Minister himself taking the reins.
Industrialisation of the country, according to the founding
fathers of modern India, was essential for improving the quality
of life. Consequently, the Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research expanded with the establishment of various institutions
dedicated to the development of specific industries.
The economic development of the country at that
time had not reached a stage where the private sector could
play a leading role in the S&T development. Consequently,
it was rightly decided by the Government to take this task
upon itself and provide the initial momentum. This has resulted
in a broad-based and extensive S&T network. Development
of adequate trained and competent S&T manpower, infrastructure
and ability to work towards specific goals in a time-targeted
manner followed naturally. It is this which is now making
the task of changing the operational philosophy wherein the
Government or the public sector rightfully expects the private
sector to become an equal, if not the dominant, partner in
the development of technology to a level where it becomes
So wide is the S&T infrastructure in India
today that it encompasses S&T organisations under the
Central Government, State Government as well as public and
private sectors working in areas as diverse as agriculture
and healthcare on the one hand and nuclear and space research
on the other. Significant contributors are the large number
of institutes/undertakings functioning under the Central Government
The S&T departments functioning under the
auspices of Central Government are : Department of Science
and Technology (DST), Department of Scientific & Industrial
Research (DSIR), Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), Department
of Space (DoS), Department of Biotechnology (DBT) and Department
of Ocean Development (DOD).
DST is primarily entrusted with the responsibility
of formulation of S&T policies and their implementation,
identification and promotion of thrust areas of research in
different sectors of S&T; technology information, forecasting
and assessment; international collaboration, promotion of
science & society programmes and coordination of S&T
activities in the country.
The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR), with its 40 institutes dedicated to research and development
in well defined areas and around 100 field stations, is the
major organisation under DSIR. Among the other programmes
of DSIR are : support to R&D by industry, programmes aimed
at technological self-reliance, schemes to enhance efficacy
of transfer of technology and a National Information System
for Science and Technology (NISSAT).
DAE, which is committed to peaceful uses of
atomic energy, is mainly engaged in establishing production
of safe, economical nuclear power, using country's resources
of uranium and thorium. It also extends non-electricity applications
of nuclear energy in agriculture, healthcare and industry
to improve the quality of life. It builds research reactors
and develops technologies related to accelerators and lasers,
and supports basic research in areas related to nuclear energy
and other frontier areas of science, through its well equipped
multi-disciplinary R&D Centers.
DoS operates through a major set-up, the Indian
Space Research Organisation, which is responsible for planning
and executing a viable space programme to develop satellites
and launch systems and provide space-based services in the
areas of communication, meteorology, resources survey, management
and sustainable development.
DBT is primarily responsible for identifying
and supporting specific R&D programmes in biotechnology
and biotechnology-related product manufacture. It also supports
training of young scientists in the field of biotechnology
at various universities and institutes.
DOD concerns itself with the task of establishing
policies for marine R&D, survey of living and non-living
resources of EEZ and continental shelf of the country, exploration
of deep seabed mining, harnessing wave energy and consolidation
of Antarctic research.
Sufficient infrastructure exists in the Indian
S&T organisations to efficiently interact with the end-users.
In fact, a large number of projects are carried out on collaboration/sponsorship
basis. In addition to R&D activities, these organisations
also support extramural research, and provide extension services
such as consultancy and training for the benefit of industry
and other end-users.
Among the S&T organisation associated with
other Central Government Ministries, Defence Research &
Development Organisation (DRDO) under the Ministry of Defence,
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) under the Ministry
of Agriculture and Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)
under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare have large
There are about 200 national laboratories and
an equal number of R&D institutes in the Central Sector
and about 1300 R&D units in the industrial sector. The
number of persons employed in the R&D establishments is
estimated to be around 300,000.
In addition to R&D establishments, the other
major body pursuing S&T activities in India is the country's
vast university system. Comprising 162 universities, 32 institutions
deemed to be universities and 10 institutes of national importance,
it is a major source of S&T manpower development, producing
around 200,000 S&T personnel every year. The total stock
of the S&T manpower in the country at the end of 1990,
is estimated to be around 4.0 million.
The Central Government is the chief patron of
scientific and industrial research. Its share was 74% of the
India's total R&D expenditure estimated around Rs. 57
billion during 1993-94.
The commitment of Indian Government to promote
socio-economic growth of the country through the use of S&T
has shown remarkable success in a short span of four decades.
India today ranks among the few developing countries
which have achieved self-sufficiency in food production. The
country has endeavoured to fulfill the basic needs of healthcare
and housing for a large section of its people.
In the field of basic research, the country
has done notably and has established major research groups
with world-class capabilities in various emerging and frontline
areas of Science & Technology. Some examples are the areas
of Molecular Biophysics, Molecular Biology, Neuro-biology,
Liquid Crystals, Biomedical Devices, Superconductivity, Condensed
Matter Physics, Astronomy and Astrophysics, Powder Processing
and Advanced Materials, Organic Chemistry, Solid Sate and
Surface Chemistry, Numerical Weather Prediction, Parallel
Processing and Atmospheric Sciences.
India occupies a unique position in the world
having formulated its own nuclear programme and cultivated
self-reliance in areas of reactor technology and its entire
associated fuel cycle. The country designs, constructs and
operates nuclear reactors, fabricates the required fuel --
reprocesses it, and treats the waste generated in the entire
fuel cycle in a comprehensive manner by a totally indigenous
Similarly, in the high-tech area of space research
India can now design, build and operate state-of-the-art communication
and remote sensing satellites as well as launch 1000 kg class
remote sensing satellites into polar sunsynchronous orbit.
Many of the technologies developed for the nuclear and space
research programmes are now finding their way into the market
and being used in other sectors. Indian industry is striving
to keep pace with these developments.
Yet another achievement which speaks of the high
level of S&T capability of India is the development of
supercomputers -- only a few advanced countries have this
In the field of Aeronautics, the country has
developed and successfully flown an all-composite trainer
aircraft. Projects are in hand for the development of Light
Transport Aircraft and Light Combat Aircraft.
A large number of technologies have been developed
and commercialized for various chemicals, including petrochemicals
and agrochemicals; industrial catalysts; drugs and pharmaceuticals;
biomedical devices; food processing; leather processing and
products; engineering materials and equipment; electronic
equipment and construction materials, to cite a few. Many
of these technologies have also been marketed abroad, an indication
of their global competitiveness.
Special mention may be made of the technologies
developed for industrial catalysts, such as Encilites, for
producing important petrochemicals like p-xylene, ethylbenzene
and olefins, and for drugs such as AZT (anti-AIDS), Etoposide
(anti-cancer) and Centchroman (non-steroidal oral contraceptive).
Micropropagation of several trees and crops
by the plant tissue culture technique, development of ELISA
and PCR techniques and DNA probes for detecting enteric pathogens
in drinking water, development of toxinogenic oral vaccine
for cholera and conversion of molasses to ethanol using a
special yeast strain are a few examples of achievements made
in the field of Biotechnology.
The major programmes being pursued in
the field of marine sciences include exploration and exploitation
of living and non-living marine resources, study of air-sea
interactions, coastal zone management and scientific expeditions
to Antarctica. India has established its reputation for carrying
out oceanographic surveys. A major assignment completed was
the comprehensive survey of the Caribbean waters under the
CORE project. India's success in exploration and survey of
deep sea polymetallic nodules has earned here the distinction
of being registered as a Pioneer Investor under the UN Convention
on the Law of the Sea which has recently come into force.
An area of 150,000 sq.km has been allotted in the Central
Indian Ocean to India for survey, exploration, and ultimate
retention of 75,000 sq.km. of high abundance area.