VIEWS: 30 PAGES: 8 POSTED ON: 12/3/2011
Page 158 What Is Mechanical Reproduction? ROBERT HULLOT-KENTOR As hands fish lovingly into purses, bags, and wallets the world over to conjure up the presence of someone absent, who could be convinced that the snapshot, that ghostly smear of emulsion, surrenders aura, the radiance of individuality hic et nunc, distant at any degree of closeness?1 Tearing up the photo would bring tears, not disenchantment. And if plans were made publicly to draw and quarter a photocopy of the essay that makes this claim—Walter Benjamin's The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction—multitudes would gather on its behalf. The essay itself insists that what has been mass reproduced becomes inertly disjoint from its original, yet the rending of the pages would make the crowd gasp. However obvious these objections may be to the essay's theses on reproduction, they disappear in its penumbra. The essay prevaricates self-evidence, it guarantees its quotation and ready embrace by virtue of a force that goes beyond each particular assertion and assures that the false rings true however it is debunked. The essay is itself auratic and this aura has not been, and could not be, thinned away by mass reproduction. But the aura of Benjamin's essay can be discerned, and maybe it is not just fruitless to study it. This aura has a form. And though this form is apparent at every point in the essay it is most convincingly accessible in Benjamin's idea of "mechanical reproduction." American and French readers of the essay are especially compelled to question the contents of this concept when they check back to the original because they will notice that Benjamin does not use the word "mechanical" at any point in the essay, not even in the renowned title, which would literally read, "The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technical Reproducibility [technische Reproduzierbarkeit]." --- 1. Editors' Note: Robert Hullot-Kentor's essay was too long to be included in its entirety. The version published here has been abbreviated by the editors. Parenthetic references in the text and notes of this essay are keyed to the edition listed in the Bibliography as: Benjamin, "Work of Art." --- Page 159 Throughout the essay each occurrence of "mechanical" can be replaced by "technical." It is not that the English translator erred. The two concepts— mechanical and technical—broadly overlap; Benjamin's essay does assume a context of mechanical devices; and by implying the thematically germane antagonism of the distractedness of mechanism verses presence of mind, "mechanical reproduction" invokes a commonplace that must have been a source of the essay. And compellingly, as a translation of the original's many variations on the phrase technische Reproduktion, the self-evidence of "mechanical reproduction"—whatever it may mean—recommends itself over the literal "technical reproduction," whose weak semantic content oozes fruitlessly.2 French poses almost exactly the same problems of translation, and it can be assumed that Benjamin did not hesitate to approve Pierre Klossowski's translation of his essay as "L'oeuvre d'art à l'époque de sa reproduction mécanisée," for its inaugural publication in the Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung (1936). Still, Benjamin would have regretted the compromise made in these translations. It is not only that film is the work of chemical, not just mechanical engineers, and cannot accurately be characterized as mechanical reproduction. More important, from title to epilogue, "tech-nic" in its various agglomerations, including "technical reproduction," threads an urgently avowed Leninism through an essay composed as an aesthetic pendant to Lenin's doctrine of the identity of industrial might and socialism. Benjamin chronicles, for instance, the rise of technical reproduction from the woodcut to lithography, moving in lock step with the rise of socialism as a variation on Lenin's thesis that "electricity plus Soviets equals socialism"; the essay's opposition to custom and craft in favor of standardization, automation, and the unequivocalness of scientific solutions, are all ideals that Lenin himself espoused in the Taylorism that he disastrously imported from American managerial science and endorsed as Communism's only legitimate means. Benjamin exalts the ineluctability of the conveyor belt and ultimately a command economy when he praises the unrelenting gapless-ness of film for dislodging the contemplative stance and private associations of the individual in front of a canvas; it is scientific precision that he extols in the surgical instrumentarium of the camera for its power to dissect life in contrast to the surface bound magic of the painter's handicraft (233); and it is to "technic" per se that Benjamin looks for leadership when he deplores the fact that society is not "mature enough to incorporate technic as its organ" and that "technic has not been sufficiently developed to cope with the elemental forces of society" (242). --- 2. At the several points where the English reverts to the literal out of a sense of responsibility to the original, the obvious indeterminateness of "technical reproduction" compels the translation to seek modifying expressions that would give the phrase some content. But the absence of any compact adequate English phrase instead drives the translation into greater obscurities. This is what happens in the following passage in which "process reproduction" is to somehow help elucidate "technical reproduction." "Confronted with its manual reproduction, which was usually branded as a forgery, the original preserved all its authority; not so vis-à-vis technical reproduction [technische Reproduktion]. The reason is twofold. First, process reproduction [technische Reproduktion] is more independent of the original than manual reproduction" (220). --- Page 160 It is likewise to Leninist productivism that the essay owes a key aporia. For just as the insistence that technic is an absolute good prohibited Leninism from understanding why the forces of production, however ripe, did not compel society to take the necessary next step to a better world, so Leninism left Benjamin in the lurch when his theses came face to face with the reality of the movies of his own age, which he describes as "illusion-promoting spectacles" bearing a "phony spell" (231). The problem that arises from this confrontation is obvious: if technic automatically withers aura, why does a "phony spell" prevail in film as it exists? Benjamin solves this aporia programmatically by situating the "phony spell" external to technic. He might as well blame foreign powers when he inculpates "the movie makers' capital" for producing this spell by "an artificial build-up of 'personality' outside of the studio" (231). The "phony spell" is clearly aura once removed, a residual technic -resistant ghost hopefully made unrecognizable as aura when lodged under other vocables. This ruse, however, maintains the purity of tech- nic only at a price: it prohibits any investigation into the technics of mass culture in film. Thus Benjamin cut himself off from such insights as are contained in his earlier study of aura, "A Short History of Pho- tography," in which he distinguishes not between aura and "phony spell" but between true and false aura, between the concentrated gaze of early photographic portraits and the gommage of pseudo-spirit instilled into faces and sunsets by the use of an erasure on the negative. This technical critique of pseudo-aura could have become the source for a more profound aesthetics, and not just of film. Instead, however, Benjamin practices conceptual gommage: the exclusion of any technical investigation of the "phony spell" redounds to the untouchable aura of Page 161 technic. Indeed the essay relies on the importation of indeterminateness to assert the self-evidence of the concept of technical reproduction. And it will be noticed that throughout the essay, however it extols technic, there is a minimum of genuinely technical analysis. It is a measure of the auratic power of the concept that it is possible to read this essay over decades without realizing that there is no technical analysis of "technical reproduction" as an overarching process that includes photography and film. The broad power of "technical reproduction" is known only by its effects, which are fourfold: (1) It results in many copies; (2) These copies are not dependent on the original to the same degree as are manual reproductions and therefore they can accent the original, regard it from various angles, and magnify what otherwise escapes the senses; (3) It brings the original into places where it could not otherwise be brought just as, to take Benjamin's example, a photo makes a cathedral portable; (4) By producing copies of this sort, it destroys aura. The auratic artwork bears the radiant authority of tradition, which it accumulates along the tether that it spans out from the moment of its unique inception. This uniqueness predicates its claim to authenticity, which is the evidence of all through which it has passed. By providing copies devoid of uniqueness, technical reproduction snaps this tether of tradition, thereby depriving the artwork of the authority of time that constitutes and shines through its untouchable presence hic et nunc. In these copies the work surrenders any claim to authenticity and any resistance to scrutiny (220-23). Aura, then, is the aura of authenticity. It is evident that Benjamin, the collector, conceived it on the model of the authenticity with which antiques are charged by the nicks and divots they acquire as they change hands over the centuries. On this model artworks could be thought to forfeit their aura by being copied just as does a pressboard knockoff of a seventeenth-century armoire. But had Benjamin more concretely investigated technical reproduction in the arts, aura would have shown itself to be a more complex object, and he would have been obliged to conceive its relation to reproduction differently. Even a tango performed in the privacy of one's own bedroom, and only indistinctly executed, is not necessarily deprived of a degree of aura, an authoritative redolence of more than is there, simply because it is the trillionth rendition and authorized by no writ of habeas corpus for the primordial movers. And if the tango seems all too manual in a discussion of technical reproduction, neither do hammers, strings, and escapements necessarily deprive a piano performance of the authority of Page 162 its historical resonance hic et nunc. The piano is, in fact, an instrument of technical reproduction according to all of Benjamin's criteria: it produces a vast number of copies; these copies are indifferent to the factually original manuscript; and the performances can slow, magnify, expand, distort, test, analyze any section, and more than meet the listener halfway. A Beethoven sonata can even be performed at different places and with overlapping simultaneity without surrendering its uniqueness. But if the presence of the pianist's fingertips once again threaten to corrupt even this event with the manual, musical recordings of his own time—and even dance films of his own decades such as Mary Wig-man's famous "Witch Dance"—were not and are not necessarily without the aura of their original, and this cannot simply be chalked up to the influence of foreign capital. Perhaps it is unfair to Benjamin to cite these examples. In his correspondence he mentions a disdain for whatever made him tap his toes, an antipathy that also testifies to a limited interest in dance. And even challenging his arguments in the domain of painting might be foreign terrain because he could never have argued for photography as he does had he made himself familiar with modernism's critique of photography as the illusionistic, trompe l'oeil medium par excellence. But if music, dance, and painting were not his terre natale, this does not account for a literary critic of the first order urging that "from the perspective of world literature" the emergence of the printing press is "merely a special, though particularly important case" (219). Benjamin jettisons any consideration of the relation of the aura of literary works to their reproduction because literature is so obviously the result of technical reproduction as he describes it: it exists in any number of copies; even if it is a disturbingly human act, it eludes every narrow reification-hungry debate over the difference between the manual and the technical; it is separate from its origins, and so forth. And all the same, while meeting every condition of technical reproduction, the aura of Absalom Absalom, for instance, is not necessarily canceled. On the contrary, the aura of the literary artwork depends on technical reproduction. Had Benjamin pursued this thread, he might have realized that his own insight that exhibition value is necessary to art implies that reproduction is not added into art but is inherent to it.' This is apparent in the fact that even before cathedrals became portable as photographs, masses of visitors were able to think back on what --- 3. Adorno, Aesthetic Theory, passim. --- Page 163 they had seen; and the inherency of reproduction to art is apparent again in the felt need to return in memory to a stanza to mumble through its syllables or to dredge up a song while G-forces drag the vocal cords their own way. Each artwork says, "Be like me," without necessarily surrendering its uniqueness. Thus Benjamin's key thesis that "even the most perfect reproduction of a work of art is lacking in one element: its presence in time and space, its unique existence at the place where it happens to be" (220) is compelling only by the potentials of its negation: even the most imperfect reproduction of an artwork is not necessarily lacking authoritative presence. Benjamin requires that this implication be pursued when he writes that technical reproduction "enables the copy of the original" (220). By invoking the concept of the copy, he is compelled implicitly to admit that there is no true reproduction without the original: every copy is a copy of the original. But, if the weave and pigment of a painting ultimately constituted the original, Kandinsky—on discovering that his new acquaintance Schoenberg was not only a composer but also a painter—would not have requested photos of his works: "Actually, I can get along even without colors. Such a photo is a kind of piano reduction."4 If a musical composition were ultimately the material acoustic event, musicians—who often enough spurn the distortion free gold-coupled stereolab—would not be heard to say, provokingly, that they are not "really interested in how it sounds." Historically, and especially in modern times, to the horror of art dealers and stirring public incredulity, artists like Giacometti and Francis Bacon have destroyed more artworks than they saved, effectively taking the side of what transpires in every artwork. Each artwork rejects its factuality, as the thing it is, by its form, which is the process by which it consumes its appearance and reveals what is more than this appearance.5 The reality revealed in this process—however difficult it may be to specify that reality—is the original of the artwork, regardless of its material. Because the reality of an artwork is external to it, our eyes find it hard to locate the work precisely, even when looking at it directly. The most important artworks, by the power and sometimes violence with which they shed their appearance, may make themselves irrelevant, as if they stand superfluously in the way of their content, and no longer need to be seen, heard, or read. --- 4. Schoenberg and Kandinsky, Letters, Pictures, Documents, p. z6. 5. Adorno, Aesthetic Theory, passim. --- Page 164 If the original is not ultimately the factual work, then the copy is not necessarily deprived of the work's authoritative aura and authenticity. It is important to realize, however, that while this criticism goes to the core of Benjamin's argument, the critique actually comes from Benjamin. In The Origin of German Tragic Drama, he writes that "the function of artistic form is ... to make historical content, such as provides the basis of every important work of art, into a philosophical truth."6 The "origin" of an artwork is thus conceived as what wrests itself free by the power of form from the historical moment—not in the sense of becoming timeless, but as a sedimentation of time that seeks fulfillment in a process that consumes its own appearance and ultimately transcends the work. "Origin" then—to cite Benjamin's favorite Karl Kraus maxim—is not the historical beginnings of an artwork, but its goal; and what is original in the work goes beyond it. These several ideas from Benjamin's own writings provide more than adequate resources to undermine the argument of the reproduction essay. They suggest that Benjamin could have refuted every thesis of the Artwork essay line by line, although that possibly means that his text becomes insuperably fishy. If we elect not to abandon it as such, the text must be studied for its fishiness. Indeed the essay asks to be studied in this way, for it schools disbelief in itself. The essay as a whole is a complex credo quia absurdum est, though without making obvious what is to be believed. On one hand, the essay claims that film motivates the revolutionary transformation of the masses, adapting a proletarianized world to collective, critical experience, and so forth. Yet, on the other hand, the essay recognizes that this is not the reality of film, and Benjamin writes at one point: "As a rule no revolutionary merit can be accredited to today's film" (231). In context, the disclaimer is a critique of the films of Western Europe. One assumes that his criticism must be more far-ranging, but against the acetate stock of the West he counterpoises no films from another cardinal direction. In fact, his accolade to the movies does not concretely reference or discuss a single movie and, completely contrary to the name-blabby genre of so-called film criticism, he hardly mentions a single film by title. If it is evident that Benjamin must be far more critical of film than the essay seems to state, where is the criticism lodged? An instance of the essay's strategy is given by Benjamin's treatment of the film audience. It attracts attention by its uneasy stirrings. What Benjamin claimed to see in the movies through the eyes of its audience is not what the masses of that age or this ever saw or would be willing to see. --- 6. Benjamin, Origin of German Tragic Drama, p. 182. --- Page 165 The identity of Benjamin's audience is puzzling because the agog movie goer who marches out of the cinema feeling Bogart's trenchcoat dragging at the ankles cannot be recognized in Benjamin's figure of the distracted expert in the middle distance who presumably leaves the theater in cool self-possession. However, this paradoxically skimming—though erudite—gaze, which Benjamin casts as the model film viewer, is a familiar incarnation of the Baudelairian flaneur, Benjamin's own self-ideal. This is the viewer who is so remote from the proceedings that he identifies not with the actors but with the camera; attentive to works of the highest level of aesthetic density and tension he perceives nothing of the enthrallment of those on either side of him; even the opportunistic quarantine of the "phony spell" external to film probably pivots on a complete and learned lack of recognition of the auratic claims raised by the stars who stare at him from on high; the eye that translated Proust and habituated itself to the arcane Trauerspiel would not have struggled to see through the magic of movieland at the screen's bare factuality; his asceticism passes over the pornographic cornucopia without a twinge to admire instead the medium for its potential thinness. With Benjamin's critical eye lodged in their otherwise diverse faces, his audience is an exotic hybrid population. It did not exist in his age, not before or since. Yet it is exclusively this nonexistent audience that Benjamin esteems as an inescapable fact, an automatic result of the movies themselves. Just how little Benjamin could have believed in the actuality of this revolutionary audience is implied by the fact that he only exalts film for what his essay fully acknowledges film was not: a proto-communist medium for the cognitive transformation of the masses. This is why anyone will notice that Benjamin's applause for his topic echoes strangely throughout the essay. It is the form in which criticism is sedimented: film, in all its aspects, audience included, is praised exclusively for what it is not. The eye that bestows admiration only where it finds nothing to admire is utterly at odds with what it sees. This is not to say that the "Work of Art in the Age of Its Technical Reproducibility" is a critique à clef of popular culture. It could not be a sly rhetoric stirring critique under admiration, for Benjamin's critical gaze is too disembodied, too unconsciously fixed in admiration, to be the work of a dinner guest furtively mocking a perfect evening. If the audience in Benjamin's essay is an elite critical eye masked as the masses enjoying themselves in an aura-gutted vision, it may be necessary for popular culture to revise its embrace of Benjamin. Page 166 He is not a man of the people, but an elitist who in this essay—rather than setting his critical gaze in self-conscious opposition to the status quo— sought to inhabit the masses self-obliviously with his own elite contrarian gaze. When this is realized the essay becomes more comprehensible in its complexity, and its broad historical context is able to emerge. Benjamin made his way intellectually to the movie house in response to the same forces that shaped a long tradition of German cultural elites, beginning with Lessing and Schiller and on to Brecht. They—contrary to the American image of German intellectualism— have been far more isolated and culturally beleaguered than their counterparts this side of the Atlantic. Pursuing a Lutheran sense of the functionality of art, they hoped to overcome this isolation through the fulfillment of cultural aims by means of aesthetic praxis. Their various programs—for example, changing Germans into Greeks anno 400 B.C. by exhorting them to aesthetic play—were naive and myopic. By constantly exaggerating the idea of art as social praxis they made themselves unwitting theorists of, and sometimes—as when Benjamin insists that Fascism completed the aims of l'art pour l'art (242)—adamant participants in, the destruction of a hard won cultural realm. At least Benjamin's perceptions of film combine into so unlikely a portrayal of its reality that they deprive the essay of any evidence that he saw many films or was very interested in those he did see. He makes this plain when he asserts that the only merit that can be attributed to films as they exist is their "promotion of a revolutionary criticism of traditional concepts of art" (231). In other words, this flaneur sat still in the movies only by putting his wits into aesthetic reverie. Something other than self-betrayal is involved in this essay. Invoking this moral optic would obscure that in these pages the continuity of his thinking is so rigorously pursued that the idea of "technical reproduction" gives unparalleled insight into his entire oeuvre. This becomes especially apparent in sections nine and ten, where Benjamin discusses film technic. The importance of these passages must be emphasized because, insofar as the essay seeks to establish film messianically as the art form to end all art, they provide a quintessential, although meager statement—missing from the rest of the essay—of how technical repro- duction destroys aura. The key technical event is this: the camera severs the actors who appear in front of it from their own likeness. They step in front of the camera only to consign their image, and ultimately its unity, to the editing table. Benjamin claims a "feeling of strangeness Page 167 . . . overcomes the actor before the camera" because the actor's "reflected image has become separable, transportable" (230-31). Having left the presence of the actor behind, aura—which is presence—itself vanishes from the image. Here Benjamin provides a statement of the form of technical reproduction: it produces an image that is not a reflection of the self. This image was the object of Benjamin's interest throughout his life, and on more than an intellectual level. Indeed, in the Artwork essay he gives evidence that his fascination with this image had preconceptual origins. When he elucidates the actor's experience of strangeness in front of the camera he tries to make his point credible by speaking from personal experience: the actor's estrangement, he writes, is "the estrangement felt before one's own image in the mirror" (230). Although the experience of the self split off from its likeness, and the beholding of this likeness as foreign, is for most people a potential yet rare late night event, Benjamin takes this depersonalization to be the norm. He insists that it is the constant condition of the reflection in the mirror, and by this exaggeration he implies that the experience of depersonalization is unavoidable. This implied claim cannot be taken at face value. Although it is possible to assume from his renowned physical standoffishness that he knew well the experience of depersonalization, he was too productive and his emotional life too complex to have constantly lived such a condition. Rather, his exaggeration has the quality of being just that and, as such, indicates an effort to cultivate an experience that was a spontaneous potential for him. Benjamin, in other words, sought to produce an image of himself that was severed from himself. "Technical reproduction" was, for him, an ideal. This does not have to be deduced from his one exaggerating comment of his experience in the mirror. On the contrary, it is repeatedly evident as the founding idea of his essay. At every point where Benjamin asserts theses that are so opposed to himself that those familiar with him are obliged to rub their eyes in disbelief, and to wonder whether this is actually Benjamin's own thought, he is not betraying himself but rather demonstrating "technical reproduction." Benjamin's taste, in other words, was for an image of himself to which he was not present. This was his parti pris for the dead and it endowed him with an unrivaled capacity to immerse himself in the antiquarian. Benjamin was alleged to have this power. Dolf Sternberger, the author of Panorama of the Nineteenth Century, voiced a familiar admiration when he thanked Benjamin for sharpening "my eye for the Page 168 foreign and dead aspects" of historical documents.7 Benjamin's affinity for the mortuary made it possible for him to sift through the breath-takingly inert documents of German Baroque drama and rediscover and decipher allegory as different from symbol. This distinction is complex, but it can be glossed as the difference between, on one hand, an image in which subjectivity withers away in the fragmentary form of a ruin, or a death's head, in the experience of time as painful duration; and on the other, a radiant image in which meaning is fulfilled in the mystical instant of the presence of spirit.8 Benjamin developed this distinction in the Trauerspiel study in order to model a theological critique of subjective reflection on allegorical form. If this distinction between symbol and allegory sounds familiar, it is because it is the same distinction made in the Artwork essay between the auratic presence of all time in the eternal moment hic et nunc, in which meaning appears as a totality, and the antiauratic, cinematic image of transience, in which the radiant presence of the actor's face is constantly stripped out of the image by the camera and deprived of wholeness by the ruin-making scissors of the editing shop. The theological critique of subjective reflection in the earlier study, built on the allegorical image, becomes a political critique built on technical reproduction. There is reason to be puzzled, therefore, when Benjamin writes in the later essay that "the technical reproduction of a work of art . . . represents something new" (218). How could it be something new if, after all, it was Benjamin's own research that dates the form of this image to four hundred years earlier and provides its seminal interpretation? But if no one knew better than Benjamin its antiquity and content, he least of all would have allowed that he was betraying his claim to his previous insight into the Baroque. Rather, he reproduces this earlier insight technically: he states it in a form that fascinated him, one deprived of self-recognition. Benjamin did not want to know the content of his reflection. His writings, however magisterial and brilliant, are at the same time ineluc-tably sworn to rationalization. In the Artwork essay he decries Fascism for deceiving the masses with a "chance to express themselves" (241) without troubling to distinguish true from false expression. In the Baroque study, he is similarly drawn to and deciphers the absence of subjective expressiveness in allegory as a form of expression, but never criticizes its actual inertness. --- 7. Benjamin, Correspondence, p. 595. 8. Benjamin, Origin of German Tragic Drama, pp. 165-66. --- Page 169 He is rigorously antipsychological throughout his oeuvre and draws on psychoanalysis only when it serves to avoid its insights—as when he insists in the Artwork essay that "the camera introduces us to unconscious optics as does psychoanalysis to unconscious impulses" (237). This claim only holds if the preconscious—in this case the world of gestures brought into consciousness only by being attended to—is substituted for the unconscious, whose contents are accessible only by interpretation. Had Benjamin been able to make better sense of psychoanalysis he would have had critical tools to avoid the rationalizing kitsch of the Trauerspiel preface, where he epitomizes the Idea as the mother's face that lights up when the constellation of her children gather around her; he would not have made himself a spokesman of collective amnesia by evoking children as "messengers of paradise"; he would not have won a place on a recent West Coast Storyteller calendar as one of a caste of New Age bards. It would also have deprived Benjamin of the boundary of depersonalization, thus compelling him to see that if looking into the mirror is an act of technical reproduction, then the camera is not all that austerely technical, nor all that opposed to the manual. Rather, technic, as "technical reproduction," is a form of subjectivity that he relies on to defend himself from knowing who he is while he seeks himself in absentia. Isn't this, after all, the latent content of his argument in the Artwork essay? If, as he asserts, the audience identifies with the camera, and if the audience can be recognized as Benjamin's eyes, then it is Benjamin who is viewing the figure who seemingly struggles with the loss of self-recognition in the unreflexive mirror of the camera. This self-viewing is particular in that it is predicated on a taboo of self-recognition. Nowhere in the "Work of Art in the Age of Its Technical Reproducibility" does Benjamin investigate the aura of mass culture. On the contrary, he simply denies that it bears aura and explains why: technical reproduction makes presence wither by producing images that are not reflections of the self. Of course, no investigation of mass culture is needed to know that Benjamin's assessment of mass culture is wrong: it glimmers with the presence of more than is factually there. But even if Benjamin's idea of technical reproduction balks at understanding what this aura is, his essay's urgently self-oblivious gestures inadvertently give some clue: "technical reproduction" produces aura in the form of Page 170 fascination—that is, under the taboo of self-recognition. The essay lives from the same aura as does mass culture, which has the ability to glimmer only with what the audience can be enticed to put there without recognizing as its own. The tautology of this aura—which mass culture is constantly compelled to experience as its unsatisfying satisfactions—is a definition of its falseness.
Pages to are hidden for
"What Is Mechanical Reproduction ROBERT HULLOT"Please download to view full document