The most cited articles published since 2010, extracted from Scopus
Volume 68, Issue 3, April 2013, Pages 255-278
Dale J. Barr | Roger P. Levy | Christoph Scheepers | Harry J. Tily
Linear mixed-effects models (LMEMs) have become increasingly prominent in psycholinguistics and related areas. However, many researchers do not seem to appreciate how random effects structures affect the generalizability of an analysis. Here, we argue that researchers using LMEMs for confirmatory hypothesis testing should minimally adhere to the standards that have been in place for many decades. Through theoretical arguments and Monte Carlo simulation, we show that LMEMs generalize best when they include the maximal random effects structure justified by the design. The generalization performance of LMEMs including data-driven random effects structures strongly depends upon modeling criteria and sample size, yielding reasonable results on moderately-sized samples when conservative criteria are used, but with little or no power advantage over maximal models. Finally, random-intercepts-only LMEMs used on within-subjects and/or within-items data from populations where subjects and/or items vary in their sensitivity to experimental manipulations always generalize worse than separate F1 and F2 tests, and in many cases, even worse than F1 alone. Maximal LMEMs should be the 'gold standard' for confirmatory hypothesis testing in psycholinguistics and beyond. © 2012 Elsevier Inc.
Volume 62, Issue 1, January 2010, Pages 67-82
Inbal Arnon | Neal E. Snider
There is mounting evidence that language users are sensitive to distributional information at many grain-sizes. Much of this research has focused on the distributional properties of words, the units they consist of (morphemes, phonemes), and the syntactic structures they appear in (verb-categorization frames, syntactic constructions). In a series of studies we show that comprehenders are also sensitive to the frequencies of compositional four-word phrases (e.g. don't have to worry): more frequent phrases are processed faster. The effect is not reducible to the frequency of the individual words or substrings and is observed across the entire frequency range (for low, mid and high frequency phrases). Comprehenders seem to learn and store frequency information about multi-word phrases. These findings call for processing models that can capture and predict phrase-frequency effects and support accounts where linguistic knowledge consists of patterns of varying sizes and levels of abstraction. © 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Volume 62, Issue 4, May 2010, Pages 392-406
Nash Unsworth | Gregory J. Spillers
The current study examined the extent to which attention control abilities, secondary memory abilities, or both accounted for variation in working memory capacity (WMC) and its relation to fluid intelligence. Participants performed various attention control, secondary memory, WMC, and fluid intelligence measures. Confirmatory factor analyses suggested that attention control, secondary memory, and WMC were best represented as three separate, yet correlated factors, each of which was correlated with fluid intelligence. Structural equation modeling suggested that both attention control and secondary memory accounted for unique variance in WMC. Furthermore, structural equation modeling and variance partitioning analyses suggested that a substantial part of the shared variance between WMC and fluid intelligence was due to both attention control and secondary memory abilities. Working memory capacity also accounted for variance in fluid intelligence independently of what was accounted for by the other two factors. The results are interpreted within a dual-component model of WMC which suggests that both attention control and secondary memory abilities (as well as other abilities) are important components of WMC. © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Volume 62, Issue 3, April 2010, Pages 284-301
Ton Dijkstra | Koji Miwa | Bianca Brummelhuis | Maya Sappelli | Harald R. Baayen
This study examines how the cross-linguistic similarity of translation equivalents affects bilingual word recognition. Performing one of three tasks, Dutch-English bilinguals processed cognates with varying degrees of form overlap between their English and Dutch counterparts (e.g., lamp-lamp vs. flood-vloed vs. song-lied). In lexical decision, reaction times decreased going from translation equivalents without any cross-linguistic orthographic overlap to very similar but non-identical cognates. Identical cognates showed a large discontinuous processing advantage and were subject to facilitation from phonological similarity. In language decision, the effect of orthographic similarity reversed: a cognate inhibition effect arose, the size of which increased with orthographic similarity. Here identical cognates were markedly slower than other cognates. In progressive demasking, no orthographic similarity effect was found for non-identical cognates, but a semantic similarity effect arose. In addition, there was a facilitation effect for identical cognates of low English frequency. The task-dependent result patterns are interpreted in terms of four accounts of cognate representation and provide evidence in favor of a localist connectionist account. © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Volume 62, Issue 3, April 2010, Pages 254-271
Dennis G. Norris | Sachiko Kinoshita | Maarten van Casteren
Early on during word recognition, letter positions are not accurately coded. Evidence for this comes from transposed-letter (TL) priming effects, in which letter strings generated by transposing two adjacent letters (e.g., jugde) produce large priming effects, more than primes with the letters replaced in the corresponding position (e.g., junpe). Dominant accounts of TL priming effect such as the Open Bigrams model (Grainger & van Heuven, 2003; Whitney & Cornelissen, 2008) and the SOLAR model (Davis & Bowers, 2006) explain this effect by proposing a higher level of representation than individual letter identities in which letter position is not coded accurately. An alternative to this is to assume that position coding is noisy (e.g., Gomez, Ratcliff, & Perea, 2008). We propose an extension to the Bayesian Reader (Norris, 2006) that incorporates letter position noise during sampling from perceptual input. This model predicts "leakage" of letter identity to nearby positions, which is not expected from models incorporating alternative position coding schemes. We report three masked priming experiments testing predictions from this model. Crown Copyright © 2009.
Volume 63, Issue 1, July 2010, Pages 83-99
Davide Crepaldi | Kathleen G. Rastle | Max Coltheart | Lyndsey A. Nickels
Recent masked priming experiments have brought to light a morphological level of analysis that is exclusively based on the orthographic appearance of words, so that it breaks down corner into corn- and -er, as well as dealer into deal- and -er (. Rastle, Davis, & New, 2004). Being insensitive to semantic factors, this morpho-orthographic segmentation process cannot capture the morphological relationship between irregularly inflected words and their base forms (e.g., fell-fall, bought-buy); hence, the prediction follows that these words should not facilitate each other in masked priming experiments. However, the first experiment described in the present work demonstrates that fell does facilitate fall more than orthographically matched (e.g., fill) and unrelated control words (e.g., hope). Experiments 2 and 3 also show that this effect cannot be explained through orthographic sub-regularities that characterize many irregular inflections, as no priming arose when unrelated words showing the same orthographic patterns were tested (e.g., tell-tall vs. toll-tall). These results highlight the existence of a second higher-level source of masked morphological priming; we propose that this second source of priming is located at the lemma level, where inflected words (but not derived words) share their representation irrespective of orthographic regularity. © 2010 Elsevier Inc.
Volume 63, Issue 2, August 2010, Pages 180-196
Joanne Arciuli | Padraic F. Monaghan | Nada Ševa
Models of reading aloud have tended to focus on the mapping between graphemes and phonemes in monosyllables. Critical adaptations of these models are required when considering the reading of polysyllables, which constitute over 90% of word types in English. In this paper, we examined one such adaptation - the process of stress assignment in learning to read. We used a triangulation of corpus, behavioral, and computational modeling techniques. A corpus analysis of age-appropriate reading materials for children aged 5-12. years revealed that the beginnings and endings of English bisyllabic words are highly predictive of stress position, but that endings are more reliable cues in texts for older children. Children aged 5-12. years revealed sensitivity to both the beginnings and endings when reading nonwords, but older children relied more on endings for determining stress assignment. A computational model that learned to map orthography onto stress showed the same age-related trajectory as the children when assigning stress to nonwords. These results reflect the gradual process of learning the statistical properties of written input and provide key constraints for adequate models of reading aloud. © 2010.
Volume 65, Issue 2, August 2011, Pages 85-97
Nate Kornell | Robert A. Bjork | Michael A. Garcia
Retrieving information from memory produces more learning than does being presented with the same information, and the benefits of such retrieval appear to grow as the delay before a final recall test grows longer. Recall tests, however, measure the number of items that are above a recall threshold, not memory strength per se. According to the model proposed in this paper, tests without feedback produce bifurcated item distributions: Retrieved items become stronger, but non-retrieved items remain weak, resulting in a gap between the two classes of items. Restudying items, on the other hand, strengthens all items, though to a lesser degree than does retrieval. These differing outcomes can make tested items appear to be forgotten more slowly than are restudied items-even if all items are forgotten at the same rate-because the test-induced bifurcation leaves items either well above or well below threshold. We review prior evidence and present three new experiments designed to test the bifurcation interpretation. © 2011 Elsevier Inc.
Volume 63, Issue 4, November 2010, Pages 541-559
Nazbanou Nozari | Audrey K. Kittredge | Gary S. Dell | Myrna F. Schwartz
This paper investigates the cognitive processes underlying picture naming and auditory word repetition. In the two-step model of lexical access, both the semantic and phonological steps are involved in naming, but the former has no role in repetition. Assuming recognition of the to-be-repeated word, repetition could consist of retrieving the word's output phonemes from the lexicon (the lexical-route model), retrieving the output phonology directly from input phonology (the nonlexical-route model) or employing both routes together (the summation dual-route model). We tested these accounts by comparing the size of the word frequency effect (an index of lexical retrieval) in naming and repetition data from 59 aphasic patients with simulations of naming and repetition models. The magnitude of the frequency effect (and the influence of other lexical variables) was found to be comparable in naming and repetition, and equally large for both the lexical and summation dual-route models. However, only the dual-route model was fully consistent with data from patients, suggesting that nonlexical input is added on top of a fully-utilized lexical route. © 2010 Elsevier Inc.
Volume 62, Issue 3, April 2010, Pages 227-239
Jeffrey D. Karpicke | Franklin M. Zaromb
A series of four experiments examined the effects of generation vs. retrieval practice on subsequent retention. Subjects were first exposed to a list of target words. Then the subjects were shown the targets again intact for Read trials or they were shown fragments of the targets. Subjects in Generate conditions were told to complete the fragments with the first word that came to mind while subjects in Recall conditions were told to use the fragments as retrieval cues to recall words that occurred in the first part of the experiment. The instruction manipulated retrieval mode-the Recall condition involved intentional retrieval while the Generate condition involved incidental retrieval. On a subsequent test of free recall or recognition, initial recall produced better retention than initial generation. Both generation and retrieval practice disrupted retention of order information, but retrieval enhanced retention of item-specific information to a greater extent than generation. There is a distinction between the testing effect and the generation effect and the distinction originates from retrieval mode. Intentional retrieval produces greater subsequent retention than generating targets under incidental retrieval instructions. © 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Volume 67, Issue 1, July 2012, Pages 224-237
Maya Misra | Taomei Guo | Susan C. Bobb | Judith F. Kroll
Behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) measures are reported for a study in which relatively proficient Chinese-English bilinguals named identical pictures in each of their two languages. Production occurred only in Chinese (the first language, L1) or only in English (the second language, L2) in a given block with the order counterbalanced across participants. The repetition of pictures across blocks was expected to produce facilitation in the form of faster responses and more positive ERPs. However, we hypothesized that if both languages are activated when naming one language alone, there might be evidence of inhibition of the stronger L1 to enable naming in the weaker L2. Behavioral data revealed the dominance of Chinese relative to English, with overall faster and more accurate naming performance in L1 than L2. However, reaction times for naming in L1 after naming in L2 showed no repetition advantage and the ERP data showed greater negativity when pictures were named in L1 following L2. This greater negativity for repeated items suggests the presence of inhibition rather than facilitation alone. Critically, the asymmetric negativity associated with the L1 when it followed the L2 endured beyond the immediate switch of language, implying long-lasting inhibition of the L1. In contrast, when L2 naming followed L1, both behavioral and ERP evidence produced a facilitatory pattern, consistent with repetition priming. Taken together, the results support a model of bilingual lexical production in which candidates in both languages compete for selection, with inhibition of the more dominant L1 when planning speech in the less dominant L2. We discuss the implications for modeling the scope and time course of inhibitory processes. © 2012 Elsevier Inc..
Volume 62, Issue 1, January 2010, Pages 35-51
Alexia Galati | Susan E. Brennan
Speakers tend to attenuate information that is predictable or repeated. To what extent is this done automatically and egocentrically, because it is easiest for speakers themselves, and to what extent is it driven by the informational needs of addressees? In 20 triads of naive subjects, speakers told the same Road Runner cartoon story twice to one addressee and once to another addressee, counterbalanced for order (Addressee1/Addressee1/Addressee2 or Addressee1/Addressee2/Addressee1). Stories retold to the same (old) addressees were attenuated compared to those retold to new addressees; this was true for events mentioned, number of words, and amount of detail. Moreover, lexically identical expressions by the same speaker were more intelligible to another group of listeners when the expressions had been addressed to new addressees than when they had been addressed to old addressees. We conclude that speakers' attenuating of information in spontaneous discourse is driven at least in part by addressees. Such audience design is computationally feasible when it can be guided by a "one-bit" model (my audience has heard this before, or not). © 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Volume 62, Issue 2, February 2010, Pages 83-97
Victor Kuperman | Raymond Bertram | R. Harald Baayen
This eye-tracking study explores visual recognition of Dutch suffixed words (e.g., plaats+ing "placing") embedded in sentential contexts, and provides new evidence on the interplay between storage and computation in morphological processing. We show that suffix length crucially moderates the use of morphological properties. In words with shorter suffixes, we observe a stronger effect of full-forms (derived word frequency) on reading times than in words with longer suffixes. Also, processing times increase if the base word (plaats) and the suffix (-ing) differ in the amount of information carried by their morphological families (sets of words that share the base or the suffix). We model this imbalance of informativeness in the morphological families with the information-theoretical measure of relative entropy and demonstrate its predictivity for the processing times. The observed processing trade-offs are discussed in the context of current models of morphological processing. © 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Volume 64, Issue 1, January 2011, Pages 88-107
Eva Van Assche | Denis Drieghe | Wouter Duyck | Marijke Welvaert | Robert J. Hartsuiker
The present study investigates how semantic constraint of a sentence context modulates language-non-selective activation in bilingual visual word recognition. We recorded Dutch-English bilinguals' eye movements while they read cognates and controls in low and high semantically constraining sentences in their second language. Early and late eye-movement measures yielded cognate facilitation, both for low- and high-constraint sentences. Facilitation increased gradually as a function of cross-lingual overlap between translation equivalents. A control experiment showed that the same stimuli did not yield cognate effects in English monolingual controls, ensuring that these effects were not due to any uncontrolled stimulus characteristics. The present study supports models of bilingual word recognition with a limited role for top-down influences of semantic constraints on lexical access in both early and later stages of bilingual word recognition. © 2010 Elsevier Inc.
Volume 64, Issue 4, May 2011, Pages 404-423
Vitória Piai | Ardi Roelofs | Herbert J. Schriefers
Disagreement exists about whether lexical selection in word production is a competitive process. Competition predicts semantic interference from distractor words in immediate but not in delayed picture naming. In contrast, Janssen, Schirm, Mahon, and Caramazza (2008) obtained semantic interference in delayed picture naming when participants had to decide between picture naming and oral reading depending on the distractor word's colour. We report three experiments that examined the role of such task decisions. In a single-task situation requiring picture naming only (Experiment 1), we obtained semantic interference in immediate but not in delayed naming. In a task-decision situation (Experiments 2 and 3), no semantic effects were obtained in immediate and delayed picture naming and word reading using either the materials of Experiment 1 or the materials of Janssen et al. (2008). We present an attentional account in which task decisions may hide or reveal semantic interference from lexical competition depending on the amount of parallelism between task-decision and picture-word processing. © 2011 Elsevier Inc.
Volume 64, Issue 1, January 2011, Pages 59-73
Victoria Leong | Jarmo A. Hämäläinen | Fruzsina Soltész | Usha Goswami
Introduction: The perception of syllable stress has not been widely studied in developmental dyslexia, despite strong evidence for auditory rhythmic perceptual difficulties. Here we investigate the hypothesis that perception of sound rise time is related to the perception of syllable stress in adults with developmental dyslexia. Methods: A same-different stress perception task was devised and delivered to a sample of 40 adults in two formats, one using pairs of identical 4-syllable words and one using pairs of two different 4-syllable words. Auditory perception of rise time, frequency and intensity, and phonological awareness, phonological memory and reading were also measured. Results: We show that adults with dyslexia performed significantly more poorly in both versions of the stress perception task. Individual differences in the perception of rise time were linked to the accuracy of performance. Conclusions: To our knowledge this is the first direct demonstration of syllable stress perception deficits in dyslexia. The accurate perception of intonational patterning and rhythm may be critical for the development of the phonological lexicon and consequently for the development of literacy. Even high-functioning compensated adults with dyslexia show impairments in speech processing. © 2010 Elsevier Inc.
Volume 63, Issue 4, November 2010, Pages 506-525
Padraic F. Monaghan | Andrew W. Ellis
Natural reading development gradually builds up to the adult vocabulary over a period of years. This has an effect on lexical processing: early-acquired words are processed more quickly and more accurately than later-acquired words. We present a connectionist model of reading, learning to map orthography onto phonology to simulate this natural reading development. The model learned early words more robustly than late words, and also showed interactions between age of acquisition and spelling-sound consistency that have been reported for skilled adult readers. In additional simulations, we demonstrated that age of acquisition effects are a consequence of incremental exposure to words in concert with changes in plasticity as learning proceeds, and are not due to uncontrolled differences in ease of reading between early and late-acquired words. Models which do not learn through cumulative training are unable to explain age of acquisition and related effects. © 2010 Elsevier Inc.
Volume 63, Issue 3, October 2010, Pages 324-346
Mante S. Nieuwland | Tali Ditman | Gina R. Kuperberg
In two event-related potential (ERP) experiments, we determined to what extent Grice's maxim of informativeness as well as pragmatic ability contributes to the incremental build-up of sentence meaning, by examining the impact of underinformative versus informative scalar statements (e.g. "Some people have lungs/pets, and..." ) on the N400 event-related potential (ERP), an electrophysiological index of semantic processing. In Experiment 1, only pragmatically skilled participants (as indexed by the Autism Quotient Communication subscale) showed a larger N400 to underinformative statements. In Experiment 2, this effect disappeared when the critical words were unfocused so that the local underinformativeness went unnoticed (e.g., "Some people have lungs that..." ). Our results suggest that, while pragmatic scalar meaning can incrementally contribute to sentence comprehension, this contribution is dependent on contextual factors, whether these are derived from individual pragmatic abilities or the overall experimental context. © 2010 Elsevier Inc.
Volume 64, Issue 2, February 2011, Pages 133-152
Adam Corner | Ulrike Hahn | Mike Oaksford
Slippery slope arguments (SSAs) have a bad philosophical reputation. They seem, however, to be widely used and frequently accepted in many legal, political, and ethical contexts. Hahn and Oaksford (2007) argued that distinguishing strong and weak SSAs may have a rational basis in Bayesian decision theory. In this paper three experiments investigated the mechanism of the slippery slope showing that they may have an objective basis in category boundary re-appraisal. When the beginning and the end of a slippery slope are more similar, the probability that they are perceived to belong in the same category is higher and the SSA is stronger. Experiment 1 established a robust effect of probability on SSA evaluation. Experiments 2 and 2A showed that when similar items are classified in the same category this leads to stronger SSAs. In Experiment 3, in a correlational analysis, it was shown that participants' confidence in their categorisation judgements predicted the perceived strength of an SSA and that this relationship was moderated by similarity between the ends of the slippery slope. We conclude that an important aspect of many SSAs may have an objective basis in well-established and rational cognitive theories. © 2010 Elsevier Inc.
Volume 62, Issue 3, April 2010, Pages 240-253
Carissa A. Zimmerman | Colleen M. Kelley
Emotionality is a key component of subjective experience that influences memory. We tested how the emotionality of words affects memory monitoring, specifically, judgments of learning, in both cued recall and free recall paradigms. In both tasks, people predicted that positive and negative emotional words would be recalled better than neutral words. That prediction was valid for free recall of positive, negative, and neutral words, but invalid for cued recall of negative word pairs compared to neutral and positive pairs; only positive emotional pairs showed enhanced recall relative to neutral pairs. Consequently, people exhibited extreme overconfidence for cued recall of negative word pairs on the first study-test trial. We demonstrate that emotionality does not globally enhance memory, but rather has specific effects depending on the valence and task. Results are discussed in terms of this complex relationship between emotionality and memory performance and the subsequent variations in diagnosticity of emotionality as a cue for memory monitoring. © 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Volume 63, Issue 2, August 2010, Pages 232-244
Pedro Macizo | Teresa Bajo | María Cruz Martín
This study examines how Spanish-English bilinguals select meanings of words that share the same orthography across languages but differ in meaning (interlexical homographs such as pie, meaning foot in Spanish). Bilingual participants were required to decide whether pairs of English words were related. In Experiment 1, participants were slower to respond to homographs presented along with words related to the Spanish meaning of the homograph as compared to control words. More importantly, bilinguals were slower to respond when the English translation of the Spanish homograph meaning was presented after responding to homographs. This result suggests that bilinguals inhibited the irrelevant homograph meaning. These inhibitory processes were independent of response type (yes/no) since participants were again slower to respond to the English translation when response type changed in Experiment 2. These results suggest that bilingual language selection in comprehension tasks implies inhibitory processes. © 2010 Elsevier Inc.
Volume 65, Issue 1, July 2011, Pages 42-73
Victor Kuperman | Julie A. Van Dyke
This study is a large-scale exploration of the influence that individual reading skills exert on eye-movement behavior in sentence reading. Seventy-one non-college-bound 16-24. year-old speakers of English completed a battery of 18 verbal and cognitive skill assessments, and read a series of sentences as their eye-movements were monitored. Statistical analyses were performed to establish what tests of reading abilities were predictive of eye-movement patterns across this population and how strong the effects were. We found that individual scores in rapid automatized naming and word identification tests (i) were the only participant variables with reliable predictivity throughout the time-course of reading; (ii) elicited effects that superceded in magnitude the effects of established predictors like word length or frequency; and (iii) strongly modulated the influence of word length and frequency on fixation times. We discuss implications of our findings for testing reading ability, as well as for research of eye-movements in reading. © 2011 Elsevier Inc.
Volume 65, Issue 4, November 2011, Pages 345-362
Kristof Strijkers | Phillip J. Holcomb | Albert Costa
The present study explored when and how the top-down intention to speak influences the language production process. We did so by comparing the brain's electrical response for a variable known to affect lexical access, namely word frequency, during overt object naming and non-verbal object categorization. We found that during naming, the event-related brain potentials elicited for objects with low frequency names started to diverge from those with high frequency names as early as 152. ms after stimulus onset, while during non-verbal categorization the same frequency comparison appeared 200. ms later eliciting a qualitatively different brain response. Thus, only when participants had the conscious intention to name an object the brain rapidly engaged in lexical access. The data offer evidence that top-down intention to speak proactively facilitates the activation of words related to perceived objects. © 2011 Elsevier Inc.
Volume 62, Issue 2, February 2010, Pages 113-134
Matthew Goldrick | Jocelyn Reppert Folk | Brenda C. Rapp
Many theories of language production and perception assume that in the normal course of processing a word, additional non-target words (lexical neighbors) become active. The properties of these neighbors can provide insight into the structure of representations and processing mechanisms in the language processing system. To infer the properties of neighbors, we examined the non-semantic errors produced in both spoken and written word production by four individuals who suffered neurological injury. Using converging evidence from multiple language tasks, we first demonstrate that the errors originate in disruption to the processes involved in the retrieval of word form representations from long-term memory. The targets and errors produced were then examined for their similarity along a number of dimensions. A novel statistical-simulation procedure was developed to determine the significance of the observed similarities between targets and errors relative to multiple chance baselines. The results reveal that in addition to position-specific form overlap (the only consistent claim of traditional definitions of neighborhood structure) the dimensions of lexical frequency, grammatical category, target length and initial segment independently contribute to the activation of non-target words in both spoken and written production. Additional analyses confirm the relevance of these dimensions for word production showing that, in both written and spoken modalities, the retrieval of a target word is facilitated by increasing neighborhood density, as defined by the results of the target-error analyses. © 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Volume 63, Issue 2, August 2010, Pages 245-257
Autumn B. Hostetter | Martha Wagner Alibali
The Gesture as Simulated Action (GSA) framework (Hostetter & Alibali, 2008) holds that representational gestures are produced when actions are simulated as part of thinking and speaking. Accordingly, speakers should gesture more when describing images with which they have specific physical experience than when describing images that are less closely tied to action. Experiment 1 supported this hypothesis by showing that speakers produced more representational gestures when describing patterns they had physically made than when describing patterns they had only viewed. Experiment 2 replicated this finding and ruled out the possibility that the effect is due to decreased opportunity for verbal rehearsal when speakers physically made the patterns. Experiment 3 ruled out the possibility that the effect in Experiments 1 and 2 was due to motor priming from making the patterns. Taken together, these experiments support the central claim of the GSA framework by suggesting that speakers gesture when they express thoughts that involve simulations of actions. © 2010 Elsevier Inc.