 River Gold Rush (the same year that the province was founded) were later prohibited from mining in the metal industry by the 1897 Inspection of Metalliferous Mines Act. When South Asian immigrants turned to logging after their arrival in 1906, a new law was passed shortly after that prevented Asians from holding logging licenses.
The only sector left untouched was the domestic service industry. Chinese men were forced to take on jobs typically dominated by white women; they worked as cooks, launderers, waiters, and store clerks, and still faced tremendous backlash from their white neighbours.
As a result of the Chinese head tax (initiated in 1885, raised 2x to reach $500 by 1903, and only abolished in 1923 when most forms of Chinese immigration were banned under the Chinese Exclusion Act), many could not afford to bring their wives or families to Canada, which meant that the majority of Chinese men lived alone in what were dubbed as “bachelor societies.” In an attempt to further isolate and discriminate Asian men, a 1912 Act in Saskatchewan outlawed the employment of white women by Chinese men, with similar campaigns following in Vancouver.
The rise of Vancouver’s Chinatown marked a period of deepening anti-Chinese sentiment across the Pacific Northwest. Chinese immigrants were considered a source of cheap labour by Canadian employers, who exploited them for their economic desperation and acceptance of less than 50 per cent of the average working wage.
Additionally, racist covenants prevented Chinese residents from purchasing property outside of Chinatown until the 1930s. These types of covenants are observed even today in the deeds of British Pacific Properties in West Vancouver.
Despite being stereotyped as an “overcrowded ghetto,” Vancouver’s Chinatown provided Chinese Canadians with a small pocket of safety from the hostility and discrimination that surrounded them. Over time, Chinatown communities across the country became significant places for businesses and families.
Even as Asian Canadians found ways to survive and thrive under these measures, the provincial government found new ways to keep them oppressed. The most obvious example of this is the forced removal of 22,000 Japanese Canadians from their homes during the Second World War.
Last year, anti-Asian hate crimes in Vancouver rose by 717 per cent. The surge of violence in response to Covid-19 proves that we have a long way to go in terms of confronting Vancouver’s xenophobic past and present.
Removing discriminatory covenants will require all participants to have better conversations about anti-Asian hate.
What do racial covenants say about North America?
During the rise of the modern real estate industry, racial homogeneity was argued to be a “natural characteristic of residential neighborhoods.” This provided real estate boards with the ammunition to enforce racially restrictive covenants, even though no correlation between race, culturally-specific behaviour, or place of residence was ever found.
The ‘precautionary’ tone of these clauses was used to uphold white supremacist values and ensure that people of colour could not threaten the system that kept them oppressed.
The common thread between covenants in the U.S. and Canada is the historical narrative that people of colour can only exist in white spaces through servitude.
Why are these covenants so difficult to remove?
In a word? Bureaucracy. General counsel for the Society of Notaries Public of B.C. Ron Usher stated that removing the covenants is an expensive and time-consuming feat.
A land title almost always contains valid restrictions on the use of the property, which makes extracting the discriminatory clauses more complicated. However, the Land Title and Survey Authority says that landowners have been allowed to remove covenants from their titles free of charge since 1978. So why the delay?
The legal nature of covenants ensures that they are difficult to remove. They are not only enforceable contracts between the original signees, but agreements that run with the land. Once signed, an agreement becomes a permanent feature of the property, binding all forthcoming heirs and assigns. Unless the original terms of the covenant include a set time limit, there is no true ‘expiration date’ for the fine print.
Unfortunately, running covenants are not an adaptation or extension of contract principles, but rather are a part of property law itself. This further complicates the process of extracting them.
Some experts argue that removing racial covenants altogether may hinder our ability to track where these restrictions occurred, and thus dismantle the system of oppression that supported them in the first place.
Others, including those who were directly impacted by racial covenants, liken the preservation of harmful rhetoric in land titles to preserving the Jim Crow era “white only” signs at water fountains, bathrooms, and other public facilities in the U.S.
Perhaps it is the relative ‘invisibility’ of racist covenants that has ensured their survival. In fact, most property owners today are not even aware that they are living in homes with these constraints.
While it may not be as straightforward or grandiose as toppling down a statue or changing a street name, the statement is just as powerful. Rather than cringing and calling the situation “uncomfortable” or “a little awkward,” realtors should work with developers, lawyers, and urban planners to make amends for decades of racial segregation.
How can we get these covenants removed?
The termination of a covenant normally requires a written release by the covenantee(s) or the adoption of a new covenant that either alters the original clause, or releases its obligations. Even if a covenant is void, it will still be visible in the chain of title, as well as in the language of the deed.
Despite the challenges presented by the process and parties involved, new policies to improve removal rates could completely change the way. As of now, real estate professionals in B.C. are not allowed to erase or render the original words illegible, but they can do a “strike-through.” More work needs to be done with the land title authority to determine how to remove these covenants from their documents.
Does My Neighborhood Determine My Future?
Aspectos imaginol�gicos do cisto dent�gero por meio de resson�ncia magn�tica e ultrassonografia
Alternative titleImaging aspects of dentigerous cyst through magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasound
Author
Date2014-01-01
Type
Access rights
MetadataShow full item record
Abstract
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a type of imaging examination considered as gold standard in the analysis of the internal structure and content of intra-osseous lesions. Because of the inherent characteristics of acquisition, MRI allows determining the nature and differential diagnosis among alterations that have aspects similar to those of other imaging modalities, such as radiographs and computed tomography (CT). Moreover, MRI main advantage is to be a non-invasive method, because it does not use ionizing radiation. Both ultrasound (US) and MRI provides images without showing deleterious effects to living organisms, enabling the differentiation between solid and cystic lesions, but US lacks to provide comprehensive anatomical detail and information about the chemical composition of the lesions as MRI, which would be crucial in determining the lesion diagnosis. This paper reports the clinical case of a child exhibiting dentigerous cyst along the whole extension of the right maxillary sinus with extensive tooth displacement, aiming to emphasize the use of both MRI and US in the diagnosis of dentomaxillofacial lesions.
How to cite this document
Language
After years of marathon running, I was ready for a change. In 2019, I found the challenge I was looking for: to walk a “camino” in Europe, where there is a highly established network of ancient pilgrim routes. The backbone of the network is the French Camino, or Camino Francés. Historians write that this route was originally walked by St. James the Apostle, and thus it is often referred to as The Way of St. James. The “finish line” is the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, in northwestern Spain.
This walking adventure felt like a natural progression after middle-age marathons, Running Room programs and fitness centres. Come September, I was not going to be a tourist on vacation—I was going to be a pilgrim on the Camino Francés.
My starting point was the little village of Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port, in the Pyrénées mountains. The first 30 kilometres of the 779-kilometre journey are in France, while the rest is on Spanish soil. The walk can take between 25 and 35 days—fewer if using a bicycle, and more if desiring rest days along the way. Many hikers choose to walk only a week or two as part of their annual vacations.
The camino experience is flexible and can easily be personalized. There is a great selection of hotels, albergues, hostals, refugios, markets and cafés along the way. Local taxis and buses are standing by for anyone who needs a break from walking or refuge from inclement weather. Travel and tourism companies will help you with the details and logistics, such as transporting backpacks and suitcases. This allows the participants to immerse themselves in the walking experience and enjoy the beautiful surroundings, including colourful wildflowers and mushrooms.
The numerous books written by past pilgrims proved to be of great assistance in terms of accommodations, transportation, study of the landscape, history, packing needs and life on the camino. When I wasn’t able to find any suggestions on how to prepare for the physical demands, I created my own three-month training program where I covered 50 kilometres per week. Although I was unsure if it would deliver its benefits during “the real thing,” I did not suffer any pain or muscle soreness throughout the entire camino. Even climbing the nearly