<s>
The	O
impact	O
of	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
on	O
workers	O
includes	O
both	O
applications	O
to	O
improve	O
worker	O
safety	O
and	O
health	O
,	O
and	O
potential	O
hazards	O
that	O
must	O
be	O
controlled	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
potential	O
application	O
is	O
using	O
AI	B-Application
to	O
eliminate	O
hazards	O
by	O
removing	O
humans	O
from	O
hazardous	O
situations	O
that	O
involve	O
risk	O
of	O
stress	O
,	O
overwork	O
,	O
or	O
musculoskeletal	O
injuries	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Predictive	B-General_Concept
analytics	I-General_Concept
may	O
also	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
identify	O
conditions	O
that	O
may	O
lead	O
to	O
hazards	O
such	O
as	O
fatigue	O
,	O
repetitive	O
strain	O
injuries	O
,	O
or	O
toxic	O
substance	O
exposure	O
,	O
leading	O
to	O
earlier	O
interventions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Another	O
is	O
to	O
streamline	O
workplace	O
safety	O
and	O
health	O
workflows	O
through	O
automating	O
repetitive	O
tasks	O
,	O
enhancing	O
safety	O
training	O
programs	O
through	O
virtual	B-Application
reality	I-Application
,	O
or	O
detecting	O
and	O
reporting	O
near	O
misses	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
used	O
in	O
the	O
workplace	O
,	O
AI	B-Application
also	O
presents	O
the	O
possibility	O
of	O
new	O
hazards	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
hazards	O
of	O
AI	B-Application
are	O
psychosocial	O
due	O
to	O
its	O
potential	O
to	O
cause	O
changes	O
in	O
work	O
organization	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
AI	B-Application
may	O
also	O
lead	O
to	O
physical	O
hazards	O
in	O
the	O
form	O
of	O
human	O
–	O
robot	B-Algorithm
collisions	O
,	O
and	O
ergonomic	O
risks	O
of	O
control	O
interfaces	O
and	O
human	O
–	O
machine	O
interactions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Hazard	O
controls	O
include	O
cybersecurity	O
and	O
information	O
privacy	O
measures	O
,	O
communication	O
and	O
transparency	O
with	O
workers	O
about	O
data	O
usage	O
,	O
and	O
limitations	O
on	O
collaborative	O
robots	B-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
From	O
a	O
workplace	O
safety	O
and	O
health	O
perspective	O
,	O
only	O
"	O
weak	O
"	O
or	O
"	O
narrow	O
"	O
AI	B-Application
that	O
is	O
tailored	O
to	O
a	O
specific	O
task	O
is	O
relevant	O
,	O
as	O
there	O
are	O
many	O
examples	O
that	O
are	O
currently	O
in	O
use	O
or	O
expected	O
to	O
come	O
into	O
use	O
in	O
the	O
near	O
future	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
"	O
Strong	O
"	O
or	O
"	O
general	O
"	O
AI	B-Application
is	O
not	O
expected	O
to	O
be	O
feasible	O
in	O
the	O
near	O
future	O
,	O
and	O
discussion	O
of	O
its	O
risks	O
is	O
within	O
the	O
purview	O
of	O
futurists	O
and	O
philosophers	O
rather	O
than	O
industrial	O
hygienists	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
many	O
businesses	O
anticipate	O
that	O
automation	O
,	O
or	O
employing	O
robots	B-Algorithm
would	O
result	O
in	O
job	O
losses	O
in	O
the	O
future	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Other	O
digital	O
technologies	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
platforms	B-Device
or	O
big	B-Application
data	I-Application
,	O
are	O
projected	O
to	O
have	O
a	O
more	O
neutral	O
impact	O
on	O
employment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
order	O
for	O
any	O
potential	O
AI	B-Application
health	O
and	O
safety	O
application	O
to	O
be	O
adopted	O
,	O
it	O
requires	O
acceptance	O
by	O
both	O
managers	O
and	O
workers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Alternatively	O
,	O
managers	O
may	O
emphasize	O
increases	O
in	O
economic	O
productivity	O
rather	O
than	O
gains	O
in	O
worker	O
safety	O
and	O
health	O
when	O
implementing	O
AI-based	B-Application
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
AI	B-Application
may	O
increase	O
the	O
scope	O
of	O
work	O
tasks	O
where	O
a	O
worker	O
can	O
be	O
removed	O
from	O
a	O
situation	O
that	O
carries	O
risk	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
a	O
sense	O
,	O
while	O
traditional	O
automation	O
can	O
replace	O
the	O
functions	O
of	O
a	O
worker	O
's	O
body	O
with	O
a	O
robot	B-Algorithm
,	O
AI	B-Application
effectively	O
replaces	O
the	O
functions	O
of	O
their	O
brain	O
with	O
a	O
computer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
AI-enabled	O
chatbots	B-Application
lower	O
the	O
need	O
for	O
humans	O
to	O
perform	O
the	O
most	O
basic	O
call	O
center	O
tasks	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
analytics	O
may	O
be	O
based	O
on	O
inputs	O
such	O
as	O
online	O
activities	O
,	O
monitoring	O
of	O
communications	O
,	O
location	O
tracking	O
,	O
and	O
voice	O
analysis	O
and	O
body	B-General_Concept
language	I-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
of	O
filmed	O
interviews	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Decision	B-Application
support	I-Application
systems	I-Application
have	O
a	O
similar	O
ability	O
to	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
,	O
for	O
example	O
,	O
prevent	O
industrial	O
disasters	O
or	O
make	O
disaster	O
response	O
more	O
efficient	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
manual	O
material	O
handling	O
workers	O
,	O
predictive	B-General_Concept
analytics	I-General_Concept
and	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
may	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
reduce	O
musculoskeletal	O
injury	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
analysis	O
of	O
large	O
amounts	O
of	O
data	O
from	O
wearable	B-Operating_System
sensors	I-Operating_System
may	O
allow	O
real-time	O
,	O
personalized	O
calculation	O
of	O
ergonomic	O
risk	O
and	O
fatigue	O
management	O
,	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
better	O
analysis	O
of	O
the	O
risk	O
associated	O
with	O
specific	O
job	O
roles	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wearable	B-Operating_System
sensors	I-Operating_System
may	O
also	O
enable	O
earlier	O
intervention	O
against	O
exposure	O
to	O
toxic	O
substances	O
than	O
is	O
possible	O
with	O
area	O
or	O
breathing	O
zone	O
testing	O
on	O
a	O
periodic	O
basis	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
AI	B-Application
can	O
also	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
make	O
the	O
workplace	O
safety	O
and	O
health	O
workflow	O
more	O
efficient	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
AI	B-Application
is	O
being	O
investigated	O
to	O
perform	O
this	O
task	O
faster	O
,	O
more	O
cheaply	O
,	O
and	O
with	O
fewer	O
errors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
AI‐enabled	O
virtual	B-Application
reality	I-Application
systems	O
may	O
be	O
useful	O
for	O
safety	O
training	O
for	O
hazard	O
recognition	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
may	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
more	O
efficiently	O
detect	O
near	O
misses	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
several	O
broad	O
aspects	O
of	O
AI	B-Application
that	O
may	O
give	O
rise	O
to	O
specific	O
hazards	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
risks	O
depend	O
on	O
implementation	O
rather	O
than	O
the	O
mere	O
presence	O
of	O
AI	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Systems	O
using	O
sub-symbolic	B-General_Concept
AI	I-General_Concept
such	O
as	O
machine	O
learning	O
may	O
behave	O
unpredictably	O
and	O
are	O
more	O
prone	O
to	O
inscrutability	O
in	O
their	O
decision-making	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
is	O
especially	O
true	O
if	O
a	O
situation	O
is	O
encountered	O
that	O
was	O
not	O
part	O
of	O
the	O
AI	B-Application
's	O
training	O
dataset	O
,	O
and	O
is	O
exacerbated	O
in	O
environments	O
that	O
are	O
less	O
structured	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Undesired	O
behavior	O
may	O
also	O
arise	O
from	O
flaws	O
in	O
the	O
system	O
's	O
perception	B-General_Concept
(	O
arising	O
either	O
from	O
within	O
the	O
software	O
or	O
from	O
sensor	O
degradation	O
)	O
,	O
knowledge	O
representation	O
and	O
reasoning	O
,	O
or	O
from	O
software	B-Error_Name
bugs	I-Error_Name
.	O
</s>
<s>
Machine	O
learning	O
applied	O
during	O
the	O
design	O
phase	O
may	O
have	O
different	O
implications	O
than	O
that	O
applied	O
at	B-Library
runtime	I-Library
.	O
</s>
<s>
Systems	O
using	O
symbolic	B-General_Concept
AI	I-General_Concept
are	O
less	O
prone	O
to	O
unpredictable	O
behavior	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
use	O
of	O
AI	B-Application
also	O
increases	O
cybersecurity	O
risks	O
relative	O
to	O
platforms	B-Device
that	O
do	O
not	O
use	O
AI	B-Application
,	O
and	O
information	O
privacy	O
concerns	O
about	O
collected	O
data	O
may	O
pose	O
a	O
hazard	O
to	O
workers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
hazards	O
of	O
AI	B-Application
are	O
psychosocial	O
in	O
nature	O
due	O
to	O
its	O
potential	O
to	O
cause	O
changes	O
in	O
work	O
organization	O
,	O
in	O
terms	O
of	O
increasing	O
complexity	O
and	O
interaction	O
between	O
different	O
organizational	O
factors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
AI	B-Application
is	O
expected	O
to	O
lead	O
to	O
changes	O
in	O
the	O
skills	O
required	O
of	O
workers	O
,	O
requiring	O
training	O
of	O
existing	O
workers	O
,	O
flexibility	O
,	O
and	O
openness	O
to	O
change	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Over-reliance	O
on	O
AI	B-Application
tools	O
may	O
lead	O
to	O
deskilling	O
of	O
some	O
professions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
perception	B-General_Concept
of	O
surveillance	O
may	O
also	O
lead	O
to	O
stress	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wearable	B-Operating_System
sensors	I-Operating_System
,	O
activity	B-Device
trackers	I-Device
,	O
and	O
augmented	B-General_Concept
reality	I-General_Concept
may	O
also	O
lead	O
to	O
stress	O
from	O
micromanagement	O
,	O
both	O
for	O
assembly	O
line	O
workers	O
and	O
gig	O
workers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
is	O
also	O
the	O
risk	O
of	O
people	O
being	O
forced	O
to	O
work	O
at	O
a	O
robot	B-Algorithm
's	O
pace	O
,	O
or	O
to	O
monitor	O
robot	B-Algorithm
performance	O
at	O
nonstandard	O
hours	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Physical	O
hazards	O
in	O
the	O
form	O
of	O
human	O
–	O
robot	B-Algorithm
collisions	O
may	O
arise	O
from	O
robots	B-Algorithm
using	O
AI	B-Application
,	O
especially	O
collaborative	O
robots	B-Algorithm
(	O
cobots	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Cobots	O
are	O
intended	O
to	O
operate	O
in	O
close	O
proximity	O
to	O
humans	O
,	O
which	O
makes	O
impossible	O
the	O
common	O
hazard	O
control	O
of	O
isolating	O
the	O
robot	B-Algorithm
using	O
fences	O
or	O
other	O
barriers	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
widely	O
used	O
for	O
traditional	O
industrial	O
robots	B-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Automated	O
guided	O
vehicles	O
are	O
a	O
type	O
of	O
cobot	O
that	O
as	O
of	O
2019	O
are	O
in	O
common	O
use	O
,	O
often	O
as	O
forklifts	B-Operating_System
or	O
pallet	O
jacks	O
in	O
warehouses	O
or	O
factories	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
cobots	O
,	O
sensor	O
malfunctions	O
or	O
unexpected	O
work	O
environment	O
conditions	O
can	O
lead	O
to	O
unpredictable	O
robot	B-Algorithm
behavior	O
and	O
thus	O
to	O
human	O
–	O
robot	B-Algorithm
collisions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Self-driving	O
cars	O
are	O
another	O
example	O
of	O
AI-enabled	O
robots	B-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
AI	B-Application
,	O
in	O
common	O
with	O
other	O
computational	O
technologies	O
,	O
requires	O
cybersecurity	O
measures	O
to	O
stop	O
software	O
breaches	O
and	O
intrusions	O
,	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
information	O
privacy	O
measures	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
industrial	O
cobots	O
equipped	O
with	O
AI‐enabled	O
sensors	O
,	O
the	O
International	O
Organization	O
for	O
Standardization	O
(	O
ISO	O
)	O
recommended	O
:	O
(	O
a	O
)	O
safety‐related	O
monitored	O
stopping	O
controls	O
;	O
(	O
b	O
)	O
human	O
hand	O
guiding	O
of	O
the	O
cobot	O
;	O
(	O
c	O
)	O
speed	O
and	O
separation	O
monitoring	O
controls	O
;	O
and	O
(	O
d	O
)	O
power	O
and	O
force	O
limitations	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Networked	O
AI-enabled	O
cobots	O
may	O
share	O
safety	O
improvements	O
with	O
each	O
other	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Human	O
oversight	O
is	O
another	O
general	O
hazard	O
control	O
for	O
AI	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Both	O
applications	O
and	O
hazards	O
arising	O
from	O
AI	B-Application
can	O
be	O
considered	O
as	O
part	O
of	O
existing	O
frameworks	O
for	O
occupational	O
health	O
and	O
safety	O
risk	O
management	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Workplace	O
health	O
surveillance	O
,	O
the	O
collection	O
and	O
analysis	O
of	O
health	O
data	O
on	O
workers	O
,	O
is	O
challenging	O
for	O
AI	B-Application
because	O
labor	O
data	O
are	O
often	O
reported	O
in	O
aggregate	O
and	O
does	O
not	O
provide	O
breakdowns	O
between	O
different	O
types	O
of	O
work	O
,	O
and	O
is	O
focused	O
on	O
economic	O
data	O
such	O
as	O
wages	O
and	O
employment	O
rates	O
rather	O
than	O
skill	O
content	O
of	O
jobs	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
these	O
may	O
still	O
not	O
be	O
specific	O
enough	O
to	O
distinguish	O
specific	O
occupations	O
that	O
have	O
distinct	O
impacts	O
from	O
AI	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
,	O
ISO	O
was	O
developing	O
a	O
standard	O
on	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
metrics	O
and	O
dashboards	B-Protocol
,	O
information	O
displays	O
presenting	O
company	O
metrics	O
for	O
managers	O
,	O
in	O
workplaces	O
.	O
</s>
