<s>
Wireless	B-Application
security	I-Application
is	O
the	O
prevention	O
of	O
unauthorized	O
access	O
or	O
damage	O
to	O
computers	O
or	O
data	O
using	O
wireless	O
networks	O
,	O
which	O
include	O
Wi-Fi	O
networks	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
term	O
may	O
also	O
refer	O
to	O
the	O
protection	O
of	O
the	O
wireless	O
network	B-Architecture
itself	O
from	O
adversaries	O
seeking	O
to	O
damage	O
the	O
confidentiality	O
,	O
integrity	O
,	O
or	O
availability	O
of	O
the	O
network	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
most	O
common	O
type	O
is	O
Wi-Fi	B-Application
security	I-Application
,	O
which	O
includes	O
Wired	B-Protocol
Equivalent	I-Protocol
Privacy	I-Protocol
(	O
WEP	B-Protocol
)	O
and	O
Wi-Fi	O
Protected	O
Access	O
(	O
WPA	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
WEP	B-Protocol
is	O
an	O
old	O
IEEE	O
802.11	O
standard	O
from	O
1997	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
WEP	B-Protocol
was	O
superseded	O
in	O
2003	O
by	O
WPA	O
,	O
a	O
quick	O
alternative	O
at	O
the	O
time	O
to	O
improve	O
security	O
over	O
WEP	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
current	O
standard	O
is	O
WPA2	O
;	O
some	O
hardware	O
cannot	O
support	O
WPA2	O
without	O
firmware	B-Application
upgrade	O
or	O
replacement	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
WPA2	O
uses	O
an	O
encryption	O
device	O
that	O
encrypts	O
the	O
network	B-Architecture
with	O
a	O
256-bit	O
key	O
;	O
the	O
longer	O
key	O
length	O
improves	O
security	O
over	O
WEP	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
laptop	O
computers	O
have	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
cards	I-General_Concept
pre-installed	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
ability	O
to	O
enter	O
a	O
network	B-Architecture
while	O
mobile	O
has	O
great	O
benefits	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
a	O
result	O
,	O
it	O
is	O
very	O
important	O
that	O
enterprises	O
define	O
effective	O
wireless	B-Application
security	I-Application
policies	O
that	O
guard	O
against	O
unauthorized	O
access	O
to	O
important	O
resources	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wireless	O
Intrusion	O
Prevention	O
Systems	O
(	O
WIPS	O
)	O
or	O
Wireless	O
Intrusion	O
Detection	O
Systems	O
(	O
WIDS	O
)	O
are	O
commonly	O
used	O
to	O
enforce	O
wireless	B-Application
security	I-Application
policies	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Hacking	O
has	O
also	O
become	O
much	O
easier	O
and	O
more	O
accessible	O
with	O
easy-to-use	O
Windows	B-Application
-	O
or	O
Linux-based	O
tools	O
being	O
made	O
available	O
on	O
the	O
web	O
at	O
no	O
charge	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
organizations	O
that	O
have	O
no	O
wireless	B-Device
access	I-Device
points	I-Device
installed	O
do	O
not	O
feel	O
that	O
they	O
need	O
to	O
address	O
wireless	B-Application
security	I-Application
concerns	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In-Stat	O
MDR	O
and	O
META	O
Group	O
have	O
estimated	O
that	O
95%	O
of	O
all	O
corporate	O
laptop	O
computers	O
that	O
were	O
planned	O
to	O
be	O
purchased	O
in	O
2005	O
were	O
equipped	O
with	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
cards	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Issues	O
can	O
arise	O
in	O
a	O
supposedly	O
non-wireless	O
organization	O
when	O
a	O
wireless	O
laptop	O
is	O
plugged	O
into	O
the	O
corporate	O
network	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
hacker	O
could	O
sit	O
out	O
in	O
the	O
parking	O
lot	O
and	O
gather	O
information	O
from	O
it	O
through	O
laptops	O
and/or	O
other	O
devices	O
,	O
or	O
even	O
break	O
in	O
through	O
this	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
card	I-General_Concept
–	O
equipped	O
laptop	O
and	O
gain	O
access	O
to	O
the	O
wired	O
network	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Anyone	O
within	O
the	O
geographical	O
network	B-Architecture
range	O
of	O
an	O
open	O
,	O
unencrypted	O
wireless	O
network	B-Architecture
can	O
"	O
sniff	B-Protocol
"	O
,	O
or	O
capture	O
and	O
record	O
,	O
the	O
traffic	O
,	O
gain	O
unauthorized	O
access	O
to	O
internal	O
network	B-Architecture
resources	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
to	O
the	O
internet	O
,	O
and	O
then	O
use	O
the	O
information	O
and	O
resources	O
to	O
perform	O
disruptive	O
or	O
illegal	O
acts	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
If	O
router	B-Protocol
security	O
is	O
not	O
activated	O
or	O
if	O
the	O
owner	O
deactivates	O
it	O
for	O
convenience	O
,	O
it	O
creates	O
a	O
free	O
hotspot	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
most	O
21st-century	O
laptop	O
PCs	O
have	O
wireless	O
networking	O
built	O
in	O
(	O
see	O
Intel	O
"	O
Centrino	B-Device
"	O
technology	O
)	O
,	O
they	O
do	O
n't	O
need	O
a	O
third-party	O
adapter	O
such	O
as	O
a	O
PCMCIA	B-Architecture
Card	I-Architecture
or	O
USB	B-Device
dongle	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Modern	O
operating	O
systems	O
such	O
as	O
Linux	B-Application
,	O
macOS	B-Application
,	O
or	O
Microsoft	B-Application
Windows	I-Application
make	O
it	O
fairly	O
easy	O
to	O
set	O
up	O
a	O
PC	O
as	O
a	O
wireless	B-Architecture
LAN	I-Architecture
"	O
base	O
station	O
"	O
using	O
Internet	B-Protocol
Connection	I-Protocol
Sharing	I-Protocol
,	O
thus	O
allowing	O
all	O
the	O
PCs	O
in	O
the	O
home	O
to	O
access	O
the	O
Internet	O
through	O
the	O
"	O
base	O
"	O
PC	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Such	O
"	B-General_Concept
piggybacking	I-General_Concept
"	I-General_Concept
is	O
usually	O
achieved	O
without	O
the	O
wireless	O
network	B-Architecture
operator	O
's	O
knowledge	O
;	O
it	O
may	O
even	O
be	O
without	O
the	O
knowledge	O
of	O
the	O
intruding	O
user	O
if	O
their	O
computer	O
automatically	O
selects	O
a	O
nearby	O
unsecured	O
wireless	O
network	B-Architecture
to	O
use	O
as	O
an	O
access	B-Device
point	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wireless	B-Application
security	I-Application
is	O
just	O
an	O
aspect	O
of	O
computer	O
security	O
;	O
however	O
,	O
organizations	O
may	O
be	O
particularly	O
vulnerable	O
to	O
security	O
breaches	O
caused	O
by	O
rogue	B-Device
access	I-Device
points	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
If	O
an	O
employee	O
(	O
trusted	O
entity	O
)	O
brings	O
in	O
a	O
wireless	B-Device
router	I-Device
and	O
plugs	O
it	O
into	O
an	O
unsecured	O
switchport	O
,	O
the	O
entire	O
network	B-Architecture
can	O
be	O
exposed	O
to	O
anyone	O
within	O
range	O
of	O
the	O
signals	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Similarly	O
,	O
if	O
an	O
employee	O
adds	O
a	O
wireless	O
interface	O
to	O
a	O
networked	O
computer	O
using	O
an	O
open	O
USB	B-Protocol
port	O
,	O
they	O
may	O
create	O
a	O
breach	O
in	O
network	B-Architecture
security	O
that	O
would	O
allow	O
access	O
to	O
confidential	O
materials	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
there	O
are	O
effective	O
countermeasures	O
(	O
like	O
disabling	O
open	O
switchports	O
during	O
switch	O
configuration	O
and	O
VLAN	O
configuration	O
to	O
limit	O
network	B-Architecture
access	O
)	O
that	O
are	O
available	O
to	O
protect	O
both	O
the	O
network	B-Architecture
and	O
the	O
information	O
it	O
contains	O
,	O
but	O
such	O
countermeasures	O
must	O
be	O
applied	O
uniformly	O
to	O
all	O
network	B-Architecture
devices	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Evaluation	O
of	O
these	O
vulnerabilities	O
and	O
the	O
resulting	O
vulnerability	O
catalogs	O
in	O
an	O
industrial	O
context	O
when	O
considering	O
WLAN	B-Architecture
,	O
NFC	O
and	O
ZigBee	O
are	O
available	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
laptop	O
computers	O
have	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
cards	I-General_Concept
pre-installed	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
ability	O
to	O
enter	O
a	O
network	B-Architecture
while	O
mobile	O
has	O
great	O
benefits	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
a	O
result	O
,	O
it	O
is	O
very	O
important	O
that	O
enterprises	O
define	O
effective	O
wireless	B-Application
security	I-Application
policies	O
that	O
guard	O
against	O
unauthorized	O
access	O
to	O
important	O
resources	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wireless	O
Intrusion	O
Prevention	O
Systems	O
(	O
WIPS	O
)	O
or	O
Wireless	O
Intrusion	O
Detection	O
Systems	O
(	O
WIDS	O
)	O
are	O
commonly	O
used	O
to	O
enforce	O
wireless	B-Application
security	I-Application
policies	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Violation	O
of	O
the	O
security	O
perimeter	O
of	O
a	O
corporate	O
network	B-Architecture
can	O
come	O
from	O
a	O
number	O
of	O
different	O
methods	O
and	O
intents	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
a	O
user	O
turns	O
on	O
a	O
computer	O
and	O
it	O
latches	O
on	O
to	O
a	O
wireless	B-Device
access	I-Device
point	I-Device
from	O
a	O
neighboring	O
company	O
's	O
overlapping	O
network	B-Architecture
,	O
the	O
user	O
may	O
not	O
even	O
know	O
that	O
this	O
has	O
occurred	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
is	O
especially	O
true	O
if	O
the	O
laptop	O
is	O
also	O
hooked	O
to	O
a	O
wired	O
network	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
“	O
Malicious	O
associations	O
”	O
are	O
when	O
wireless	O
devices	O
can	O
be	O
actively	O
made	O
by	O
attackers	O
to	O
connect	O
to	O
a	O
company	O
network	B-Architecture
through	O
their	O
laptop	O
instead	O
of	O
a	O
company	O
access	B-Device
point	I-Device
(	O
AP	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
types	O
of	O
laptops	O
are	O
known	O
as	O
“	O
soft	O
APs	O
”	O
and	O
are	O
created	O
when	O
a	O
cyber	O
criminal	O
runs	O
some	O
software	O
that	O
makes	O
his/her	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
network	I-General_Concept
card	I-General_Concept
look	O
like	O
a	O
legitimate	O
access	B-Device
point	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Once	O
the	O
thief	O
has	O
gained	O
access	O
,	O
he/she	O
can	O
steal	O
passwords	O
,	O
launch	O
attacks	O
on	O
the	O
wired	O
network	B-Architecture
,	O
or	O
plant	O
trojans	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
wireless	O
networks	O
operate	O
at	O
the	O
Layer	B-Protocol
2	I-Protocol
level	O
,	O
Layer	B-Application
3	I-Application
protections	O
such	O
as	O
network	B-Architecture
authentication	O
and	O
virtual	B-Application
private	I-Application
networks	I-Application
(	O
VPNs	B-Application
)	O
offer	O
no	O
barrier	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
idea	O
behind	O
this	O
type	O
of	O
attack	O
may	O
not	O
be	O
to	O
break	O
into	O
a	O
VPN	B-Application
or	O
other	O
security	O
measures	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Most	O
likely	O
the	O
criminal	O
is	O
just	O
trying	O
to	O
take	O
over	O
the	O
client	O
at	O
the	O
Layer	B-Protocol
2	I-Protocol
level	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Ad	O
hoc	O
networks	O
are	O
defined	O
as	O
[	O
peer	O
to	O
peer ]	O
networks	O
between	O
wireless	O
computers	O
that	O
do	O
not	O
have	O
an	O
access	B-Device
point	I-Device
in	O
between	O
them	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
security	O
hole	O
provided	O
by	O
Ad	O
hoc	O
networking	O
is	O
not	O
the	O
Ad	O
hoc	O
network	B-Architecture
itself	O
but	O
the	O
bridge	O
it	O
provides	O
into	O
other	O
networks	O
,	O
usually	O
in	O
the	O
corporate	O
environment	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
unfortunate	O
default	O
settings	O
in	O
most	O
versions	O
of	O
Microsoft	B-Application
Windows	I-Application
to	O
have	O
this	O
feature	O
turned	O
on	O
unless	O
explicitly	O
disabled	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Thus	O
the	O
user	O
may	O
not	O
even	O
know	O
they	O
have	O
an	O
unsecured	O
Ad	O
hoc	O
network	B-Architecture
in	O
operation	O
on	O
their	O
computer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
If	O
they	O
are	O
also	O
using	O
a	O
wired	O
or	O
wireless	O
infrastructure	O
network	B-Architecture
at	O
the	O
same	O
time	O
,	O
they	O
are	O
providing	O
a	O
bridge	O
to	O
the	O
secured	O
organizational	O
network	B-Architecture
through	O
the	O
unsecured	O
Ad	O
hoc	O
connection	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
indirect	O
bridge	O
may	O
expose	O
private	O
data	O
that	O
is	O
shared	O
from	O
the	O
user	O
's	O
computer	O
to	O
LAN	B-General_Concept
connections	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
shared	O
folders	O
or	O
private	O
Network	B-Architecture
Attached	O
Storage	O
,	O
making	O
no	O
distinction	O
between	O
authenticated	O
or	O
private	O
connections	O
and	O
unauthenticated	O
Ad-Hoc	O
networks	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
presents	O
no	O
threats	O
not	O
already	O
familiar	O
to	O
open/public	O
or	O
unsecured	O
wifi	B-Device
access	I-Device
points	I-Device
,	O
but	O
firewall	O
rules	O
may	O
be	O
circumvented	O
in	O
the	O
case	O
of	O
poorly	O
configured	O
operating	O
systems	O
or	O
local	O
settings	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Non-traditional	O
networks	O
such	O
as	O
personal	O
network	B-Architecture
Bluetooth	B-Protocol
devices	O
are	O
not	O
safe	O
from	O
hacking	O
and	O
should	O
be	O
regarded	O
as	O
a	O
security	O
risk	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Even	O
barcode	B-Device
readers	I-Device
,	O
handheld	O
PDAs	B-Application
,	O
and	O
wireless	O
printers	O
and	O
copiers	O
should	O
be	O
secured	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
non-traditional	O
networks	O
can	O
be	O
easily	O
overlooked	O
by	O
IT	O
personnel	O
who	O
have	O
narrowly	O
focused	O
on	O
laptops	O
and	O
access	B-Device
points	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Identity	O
theft	O
(	O
or	O
MAC	O
spoofing	O
)	O
occurs	O
when	O
a	O
hacker	O
is	O
able	O
to	O
listen	O
in	O
on	O
network	B-Architecture
traffic	O
and	O
identify	O
the	O
MAC	O
address	O
of	O
a	O
computer	O
with	O
network	B-Architecture
privileges	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Most	O
wireless	O
systems	O
allow	O
some	O
kind	O
of	O
MAC	O
filtering	O
to	O
allow	O
only	O
authorized	O
computers	O
with	O
specific	O
MAC	O
IDs	O
to	O
gain	O
access	O
and	O
utilize	O
the	O
network	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
programs	O
exist	O
that	O
have	O
network	B-Architecture
“	O
sniffing	B-Protocol
”	O
capabilities	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Anyone	O
with	O
an	O
802.11	O
receiver	O
(	O
laptop	O
and	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
adapter	I-General_Concept
)	O
and	O
a	O
freeware	O
wireless	O
packet	B-Protocol
analyzer	I-Protocol
can	O
obtain	O
the	O
MAC	O
address	O
of	O
any	O
transmitting	O
802.11	O
within	O
range	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
man-in-the-middle	O
attacker	O
entices	O
computers	O
to	O
log	O
into	O
a	O
computer	O
which	O
is	O
set	O
up	O
as	O
a	O
soft	O
AP	O
(	O
Access	B-Device
Point	I-Device
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Once	O
this	O
is	O
done	O
,	O
the	O
hacker	O
connects	O
to	O
a	O
real	O
access	B-Device
point	I-Device
through	O
another	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
card	I-General_Concept
offering	O
a	O
steady	O
flow	O
of	O
traffic	O
through	O
the	O
transparent	O
hacking	O
computer	O
to	O
the	O
real	O
network	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
hacker	O
can	O
then	O
sniff	B-Protocol
the	O
traffic	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Hotspots	B-Application
are	O
particularly	O
vulnerable	O
to	O
any	O
attack	O
since	O
there	O
is	O
little	O
to	O
no	O
security	O
on	O
these	O
networks	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
Denial-of-service	O
attack	O
(	O
DoS	O
)	O
occurs	O
when	O
an	O
attacker	O
continually	O
bombards	O
a	O
targeted	O
AP	O
(	O
Access	B-Device
Point	I-Device
)	O
or	O
network	B-Architecture
with	O
bogus	O
requests	O
,	O
premature	O
successful	O
connection	O
messages	O
,	O
failure	O
messages	O
,	O
and/or	O
other	O
commands	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
cause	O
legitimate	O
users	O
to	O
not	O
be	O
able	O
to	O
get	O
on	O
the	O
network	B-Architecture
and	O
may	O
even	O
cause	O
the	O
network	B-Architecture
to	O
crash	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
attacks	O
rely	O
on	O
the	O
abuse	O
of	O
protocols	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
Extensible	B-Protocol
Authentication	I-Protocol
Protocol	I-Protocol
(	O
EAP	B-Protocol
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
DoS	O
attack	O
in	O
itself	O
does	O
little	O
to	O
expose	O
organizational	O
data	O
to	O
a	O
malicious	O
attacker	O
,	O
since	O
the	O
interruption	O
of	O
the	O
network	B-Architecture
prevents	O
the	O
flow	O
of	O
data	O
and	O
actually	O
indirectly	O
protects	O
data	O
by	O
preventing	O
it	O
from	O
being	O
transmitted	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
usual	O
reason	O
for	O
performing	O
a	O
DoS	O
attack	O
is	O
to	O
observe	O
the	O
recovery	O
of	O
the	O
wireless	O
network	B-Architecture
,	O
during	O
which	O
all	O
of	O
the	O
initial	O
handshake	O
codes	O
are	O
re-transmitted	O
by	O
all	O
devices	O
,	O
providing	O
an	O
opportunity	O
for	O
the	O
malicious	O
attacker	O
to	O
record	O
these	O
codes	O
and	O
use	O
various	O
cracking	O
tools	O
to	O
analyze	O
security	O
weaknesses	O
and	O
exploit	O
them	O
to	O
gain	O
unauthorized	O
access	O
to	O
the	O
system	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
works	O
best	O
on	O
weakly	O
encrypted	O
systems	O
such	O
as	O
WEP	B-Protocol
,	O
where	O
there	O
are	O
a	O
number	O
of	O
tools	O
available	O
which	O
can	O
launch	O
a	O
dictionary	O
style	O
attack	O
of	O
"	O
possibly	O
accepted	O
"	O
security	O
keys	O
based	O
on	O
the	O
"	O
model	O
"	O
security	O
key	O
captured	O
during	O
the	O
network	B-Architecture
recovery	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
a	O
network	B-Architecture
injection	O
attack	O
,	O
a	O
hacker	O
can	O
make	O
use	O
of	O
access	B-Device
points	I-Device
that	O
are	O
exposed	O
to	O
non-filtered	O
network	B-Architecture
traffic	O
,	O
specifically	O
broadcasting	O
network	B-Architecture
traffic	O
such	O
as	O
“	O
Spanning	B-Protocol
Tree	I-Protocol
”	O
(	O
802.1D	O
)	O
,	O
OSPF	B-Protocol
,	O
RIP	B-Protocol
,	O
and	O
HSRP	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
hacker	O
injects	O
bogus	O
networking	O
re-configuration	O
commands	O
that	O
affect	O
routers	B-Protocol
,	O
switches	O
,	O
and	O
intelligent	O
hubs	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
whole	O
network	B-Architecture
can	O
be	O
brought	O
down	O
in	O
this	O
manner	O
and	O
require	O
rebooting	O
or	O
even	O
reprogramming	O
of	O
all	O
intelligent	O
networking	O
devices	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Caffe	O
Latte	O
attack	O
is	O
another	O
way	O
to	O
obtain	O
a	O
WEP	B-Protocol
key	I-Protocol
and	O
does	O
not	O
require	O
a	O
nearby	O
access	B-Device
point	I-Device
for	O
the	O
target	O
network	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Caffe	O
Latte	O
attack	O
works	O
by	O
tricking	O
a	O
client	O
with	O
the	O
WEP	B-Protocol
password	O
stored	O
to	O
connect	O
to	O
a	O
malicious	O
access	B-Device
point	I-Device
with	O
the	O
same	O
SSID	O
as	O
the	O
target	O
network	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
After	O
the	O
client	O
connects	O
,	O
the	O
client	O
generates	O
ARP	O
requests	O
,	O
which	O
the	O
malicious	O
access	B-Device
point	I-Device
uses	O
to	O
obtain	O
keystream	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
malicious	O
access	B-Device
point	I-Device
then	O
repeatedly	O
sends	O
a	O
deauthentication	O
packet	O
to	O
the	O
client	O
,	O
causing	O
the	O
client	O
to	O
disconnect	O
,	O
reconnect	O
,	O
and	O
send	O
additional	O
ARP	O
requests	O
,	O
which	O
the	O
malicious	O
access	B-Device
point	I-Device
then	O
uses	O
to	O
obtain	O
additional	O
keystream	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Once	O
the	O
malicious	O
access	B-Device
point	I-Device
has	O
collected	O
a	O
sufficient	O
amount	O
of	O
keystream	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
the	O
WEP	B-Protocol
key	I-Protocol
can	O
be	O
cracked	O
with	O
a	O
tool	O
like	O
 [ aircrack-ng ] 	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Caffe	O
Latte	O
attack	O
was	O
demonstrated	O
against	O
the	O
Windows	B-Application
wireless	O
stack	O
,	O
but	O
other	O
operating	O
systems	O
may	O
also	O
be	O
vulnerable	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
attack	O
was	O
named	O
the	O
"	O
Caffe	O
Latte	O
"	O
attack	O
by	O
researchers	O
Md	O
Sohail	O
Ahmad	O
and	O
Vivek	O
Ramachandran	O
because	O
it	O
could	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
obtain	O
the	O
WEP	B-Protocol
key	I-Protocol
from	O
a	O
remote	O
traveler	O
in	O
less	O
than	O
the	O
6	O
minutes	O
it	O
takes	O
to	O
drink	O
a	O
cup	O
of	O
coffee	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
three	O
principal	O
ways	O
to	O
secure	O
a	O
wireless	O
network	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
closed	O
networks	O
(	O
like	O
home	O
users	O
and	O
organizations	O
)	O
the	O
most	O
common	O
way	O
is	O
to	O
configure	O
access	O
restrictions	O
in	O
the	O
access	B-Device
points	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wireless	O
Intrusion	O
Prevention	O
Systems	O
can	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
provide	O
wireless	B-Application
LAN	I-Application
security	I-Application
in	O
this	O
network	B-Architecture
model	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
commercial	O
providers	O
,	O
hotspots	B-Application
,	O
and	O
large	O
organizations	O
,	O
the	O
preferred	O
solution	O
is	O
often	O
to	O
have	O
an	O
open	O
and	O
unencrypted	O
,	O
but	O
completely	O
isolated	O
wireless	O
network	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
users	O
will	O
at	O
first	O
have	O
no	O
access	O
to	O
the	O
Internet	O
nor	O
to	O
any	O
local	B-General_Concept
network	I-General_Concept
resources	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Another	O
solution	O
is	O
to	O
require	O
the	O
users	O
to	O
connect	O
securely	O
to	O
a	O
privileged	O
network	B-Architecture
using	O
VPN	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wireless	O
networks	O
are	O
less	O
secure	O
than	O
wired	O
ones	O
;	O
in	O
many	O
offices	O
intruders	O
can	O
easily	O
visit	O
and	O
hook	O
up	O
their	O
own	O
computer	O
to	O
the	O
wired	O
network	B-Architecture
without	O
problems	O
,	O
gaining	O
access	O
to	O
the	O
network	B-Architecture
,	O
and	O
it	O
is	O
also	O
often	O
possible	O
for	O
remote	O
intruders	O
to	O
gain	O
access	O
to	O
the	O
network	B-Architecture
through	O
backdoors	O
like	O
Back	B-Protocol
Orifice	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
Wireless	O
Intrusion	O
Prevention	O
System	O
(	O
WIPS	O
)	O
is	O
a	O
concept	O
for	O
the	O
most	O
robust	O
way	O
to	O
counteract	O
wireless	B-Application
security	I-Application
risks	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
WIPS	O
is	O
typically	O
implemented	O
as	O
an	O
overlay	O
to	O
an	O
existing	O
Wireless	B-Architecture
LAN	I-Architecture
infrastructure	O
,	O
although	O
it	O
may	O
be	O
deployed	O
standalone	O
to	O
enforce	O
no-wireless	O
policies	O
within	O
an	O
organization	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
WIPS	O
is	O
considered	O
so	O
important	O
to	O
wireless	B-Application
security	I-Application
that	O
in	O
July	O
2009	O
,	O
the	O
Payment	O
Card	O
Industry	O
Security	O
Standards	O
Council	O
published	O
wireless	O
guidelines	O
for	O
PCI	O
DSS	O
recommending	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
WIPS	O
to	O
automate	O
wireless	O
scanning	O
and	O
protection	O
for	O
large	O
organizations	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
a	O
range	O
of	O
wireless	B-Application
security	I-Application
measures	O
,	O
of	O
varying	O
effectiveness	O
and	O
practicality	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
simple	O
but	O
ineffective	O
method	O
to	O
attempt	O
to	O
secure	O
a	O
wireless	O
network	B-Architecture
is	O
to	O
hide	O
the	O
SSID	O
(	O
Service	B-General_Concept
Set	I-General_Concept
Identifier	I-General_Concept
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Most	O
wireless	B-Device
access	I-Device
points	I-Device
contain	O
some	O
type	O
of	O
MAC	O
ID	O
filtering	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
an	O
attacker	O
can	O
simply	O
sniff	B-Protocol
the	O
MAC	O
address	O
of	O
an	O
authorized	O
client	O
and	O
spoof	O
this	O
address	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Typical	O
wireless	B-Device
access	I-Device
points	I-Device
provide	O
IP	B-Protocol
addresses	I-Protocol
to	O
clients	O
via	O
DHCP	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
Requiring	O
clients	O
to	O
set	O
their	O
own	O
addresses	O
makes	O
it	O
more	O
difficult	O
for	O
a	O
casual	O
or	O
unsophisticated	O
intruder	O
to	O
log	O
onto	O
the	O
network	B-Architecture
,	O
but	O
provides	O
little	O
protection	O
against	O
a	O
sophisticated	O
attacker	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
IEEE	O
802.1X	O
is	O
the	O
IEEE	O
Standard	O
authentication	O
mechanisms	O
to	O
devices	O
wishing	O
to	O
attach	O
to	O
a	O
Wireless	B-Architecture
LAN	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Wired	B-Protocol
Equivalent	I-Protocol
Privacy	I-Protocol
(	O
WEP	B-Protocol
)	O
encryption	O
standard	O
was	O
the	O
original	O
encryption	O
standard	O
for	O
wireless	O
,	O
but	O
since	O
2004	O
with	O
the	O
ratification	O
WPA2	O
the	O
IEEE	O
has	O
declared	O
it	O
"	O
deprecated	O
"	O
,	O
and	O
while	O
often	O
supported	O
,	O
it	O
is	O
seldom	O
or	O
never	O
the	O
default	O
on	O
modern	O
equipment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Concerns	O
were	O
raised	O
about	O
its	O
security	O
as	O
early	O
as	O
2001	O
,	O
dramatically	O
demonstrated	O
in	O
2005	O
by	O
the	O
FBI	O
,	O
yet	O
in	O
2007	O
T.J.	O
Maxx	O
admitted	O
a	O
massive	O
security	O
breach	O
due	O
in	O
part	O
to	O
a	O
reliance	O
on	O
WEP	B-Protocol
and	O
the	O
Payment	O
Card	O
Industry	O
took	O
until	O
2008	O
to	O
prohibit	O
its	O
use	O
–	O
and	O
even	O
then	O
allowed	O
existing	O
use	O
to	O
continue	O
until	O
June	O
2010	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Wi-Fi	O
Protected	O
Access	O
(	O
WPA	O
and	O
WPA2	O
)	O
security	O
protocols	O
were	O
later	O
created	O
to	O
address	O
the	O
problems	O
with	O
WEP	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
second	O
generation	O
of	O
the	O
WPA	O
security	O
protocol	O
(	O
WPA2	O
)	O
is	O
based	O
on	O
the	O
final	O
IEEE	B-Protocol
802.11i	I-Protocol
amendment	O
to	O
the	O
802.11	O
standard	O
and	O
is	O
eligible	O
for	O
FIPS	O
140-2	O
compliance	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
With	O
all	O
those	O
encryption	O
schemes	O
,	O
any	O
client	O
in	O
the	O
network	B-Architecture
that	O
knows	O
the	O
keys	O
can	O
read	O
all	O
the	O
traffic	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wi-Fi	O
Protected	O
Access	O
(	O
WPA	O
)	O
is	O
a	O
software/firmware	O
improvement	O
over	O
WEP	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
All	O
regular	O
WLAN-equipment	O
that	O
worked	O
with	O
WEP	B-Protocol
are	O
able	O
to	O
be	O
simply	O
upgraded	O
and	O
no	O
new	O
equipment	O
needs	O
to	O
be	O
bought	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
WPA	O
is	O
a	O
trimmed-down	O
version	O
of	O
the	O
802.11i	B-Protocol
security	O
standard	O
that	O
was	O
developed	O
by	O
the	O
IEEE	O
802.11	O
to	O
replace	O
WEP	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
TKIP	B-Protocol
encryption	O
algorithm	O
was	O
developed	O
for	O
WPA	O
to	O
provide	O
improvements	O
to	O
WEP	B-Protocol
that	O
could	O
be	O
fielded	O
as	O
firmware	B-Application
upgrades	O
to	O
existing	O
802.11	O
devices	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
WPA	O
profile	O
also	O
provides	O
optional	O
support	O
for	O
the	O
AES-CCMP	B-Protocol
algorithm	O
that	O
is	O
the	O
preferred	O
algorithm	O
in	O
802.11i	B-Protocol
and	O
WPA2	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
WPA	O
Enterprise	O
provides	O
RADIUS	B-Protocol
based	O
authentication	O
using	O
802.1X	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wireless	O
suites	O
such	O
as	O
aircrack-ng	B-Protocol
can	O
crack	O
a	O
weak	O
passphrase	O
in	O
less	O
than	O
a	O
minute	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Other	O
WEP/WPA	O
crackers	O
are	O
AirSnort	O
and	O
Auditor	O
Security	O
Collection	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
was	O
information	O
,	O
however	O
,	O
that	O
Erik	O
Tews	O
(	O
the	O
man	O
who	O
created	O
the	O
fragmentation	O
attack	O
against	O
WEP	B-Protocol
)	O
was	O
going	O
to	O
reveal	O
a	O
way	O
of	O
breaking	O
the	O
WPA	O
TKIP	B-Protocol
implementation	O
at	O
Tokyo	O
's	O
PacSec	O
security	O
conference	O
in	O
November	O
2008	O
,	O
cracking	O
the	O
encryption	O
on	O
a	O
packet	O
in	O
12	O
to	O
15	O
minutes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
addition	O
to	O
WPAv1	O
,	O
TKIP	B-Protocol
,	O
WIDS	O
and	O
EAP	B-Protocol
may	O
be	O
added	O
alongside	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Also	O
,	O
VPN-networks	O
(	O
non-continuous	O
secure	O
network	B-Architecture
connections	O
)	O
may	O
be	O
set	O
up	O
under	O
the	O
802.11-standard	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
VPN	B-Application
implementations	O
include	O
PPTP	B-Protocol
,	O
L2TP	B-Application
,	O
IPsec	B-Protocol
and	O
SSH	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
this	O
extra	O
layer	O
of	O
security	O
may	O
also	O
be	O
cracked	O
with	O
tools	O
such	O
as	O
Anger	O
,	O
Deceit	O
and	O
Ettercap	B-Language
for	O
PPTP	B-Protocol
;	O
and	O
ike-scan	O
,	O
IKEProbe	O
,	O
ipsectrace	B-Protocol
,	O
and	O
IKEcrack	O
for	O
IPsec-connections	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
stands	O
for	O
Temporal	B-Protocol
Key	I-Protocol
Integrity	I-Protocol
Protocol	I-Protocol
and	O
the	O
acronym	O
is	O
pronounced	O
as	O
tee-kip	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
is	O
part	O
of	O
the	O
IEEE	B-Protocol
802.11i	I-Protocol
standard	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
TKIP	B-Protocol
implements	O
per-packet	O
key	O
mixing	O
with	O
a	O
re-keying	O
system	O
and	O
also	O
provides	O
a	O
message	O
integrity	O
check	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
avoid	O
the	O
problems	O
of	O
WEP	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
WPA-improvement	O
over	O
the	O
IEEE	O
802.1X	O
standard	O
already	O
improved	O
the	O
authentication	O
and	O
authorization	O
for	O
access	O
of	O
wireless	O
and	O
wired	O
LANs	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
addition	O
to	O
this	O
,	O
extra	O
measures	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
Extensible	B-Protocol
Authentication	I-Protocol
Protocol	I-Protocol
(	O
EAP	B-Protocol
)	O
have	O
initiated	O
an	O
even	O
greater	O
amount	O
of	O
security	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
,	O
as	O
EAP	B-Protocol
uses	O
a	O
central	O
authentication	O
server	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
new	O
version	O
of	O
EAP	B-Protocol
is	O
now	O
called	O
Extended	O
EAP	B-Protocol
and	O
is	O
available	O
in	O
several	O
versions	O
;	O
these	O
include	O
:	O
EAP-MD5	O
,	O
PEAPv0	O
,	O
PEAPv1	O
,	O
EAP-MSCHAPv2	O
,	O
LEAP	O
,	O
EAP-FAST	O
,	O
EAP-TLS	O
,	O
EAP-TTLS	O
,	O
MSCHAPv2	O
,	O
and	O
EAP-SIM	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
EAP-versions	O
include	O
LEAP	O
,	O
PEAP	O
and	O
other	O
EAP	B-Protocol
's	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
stands	O
for	O
the	O
Lightweight	O
Extensible	B-Protocol
Authentication	I-Protocol
Protocol	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
protocol	O
is	O
based	O
on	O
802.1X	O
and	O
helps	O
minimize	O
the	O
original	O
security	O
flaws	O
by	O
using	O
WEP	B-Protocol
and	O
a	O
sophisticated	O
key	O
management	O
system	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
EAP-version	O
is	O
safer	O
than	O
EAP-MD5	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
LEAP	O
is	O
not	O
secure	O
;	O
THC-LeapCracker	O
can	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
break	O
Cisco	O
’s	O
version	O
of	O
LEAP	O
and	O
be	O
used	O
against	O
computers	O
connected	O
to	O
an	O
access	B-Device
point	I-Device
in	O
the	O
form	O
of	O
a	O
dictionary	O
attack	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
stands	O
for	O
Protected	O
Extensible	B-Protocol
Authentication	I-Protocol
Protocol	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
other	O
types	O
of	O
Extensible	B-Protocol
Authentication	I-Protocol
Protocol	I-Protocol
implementations	O
that	O
are	O
based	O
on	O
the	O
EAP	B-Protocol
framework	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
framework	O
that	O
was	O
established	O
supports	O
existing	O
EAP	B-Protocol
types	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
future	O
authentication	O
methods	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
EAP-TLS	O
offers	O
very	O
good	O
protection	O
because	O
of	O
its	O
mutual	O
authentication	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Both	O
the	O
client	O
and	O
the	O
network	B-Architecture
are	O
authenticated	O
using	O
certificates	O
and	O
per-session	O
WEP	B-Protocol
keys	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
EAP-FAST	O
also	O
offers	O
good	O
protection	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
EAP-TTLS	O
is	O
another	O
alternative	O
made	O
by	O
Certicom	O
and	O
Funk	O
Software	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
more	O
convenient	O
as	O
one	O
does	O
not	O
need	O
to	O
distribute	O
certificates	O
to	O
users	O
,	O
yet	O
offers	O
slightly	O
less	O
protection	O
than	O
EAP-TLS	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wireless	B-Device
access	I-Device
points	I-Device
that	O
incorporate	O
technologies	O
like	O
these	O
often	O
also	O
have	O
routers	B-Protocol
built	O
in	O
,	O
thus	O
becoming	O
wireless	B-Device
gateways	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
can	O
argue	O
that	O
both	O
layer	B-Protocol
2	I-Protocol
and	O
layer	B-Application
3	I-Application
encryption	O
methods	O
are	O
not	O
good	O
enough	O
for	O
protecting	O
valuable	O
data	O
like	O
passwords	O
and	O
personal	O
emails	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Those	O
technologies	O
add	O
encryption	O
only	O
to	O
parts	O
of	O
the	O
communication	O
path	O
,	O
still	O
allowing	O
people	O
to	O
spy	O
on	O
the	O
traffic	O
if	O
they	O
have	O
gained	O
access	O
to	O
the	O
wired	O
network	B-Architecture
somehow	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
solution	O
may	O
be	O
encryption	O
and	O
authorization	O
in	O
the	O
application	B-Application
layer	I-Application
,	O
using	O
technologies	O
like	O
SSL	B-Protocol
,	O
SSH	B-Protocol
,	O
GnuPG	B-Application
,	O
PGP	B-Application
and	O
similar	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
With	O
encryption	O
on	O
the	O
router	B-Protocol
level	O
or	O
VPN	B-Application
,	O
a	O
single	O
switch	O
encrypts	O
all	O
traffic	O
,	O
even	O
UDP	O
and	O
DNS	O
lookups	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
Web	O
,	O
not	O
all	O
web	O
sites	O
offer	O
https	O
,	O
and	O
even	O
if	O
they	O
do	O
,	O
the	O
browser	O
sends	O
out	O
IP	B-Protocol
addresses	I-Protocol
in	O
clear	O
text	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
office	O
LAN	B-General_Concept
owner	O
seeking	O
to	O
restrict	O
such	O
access	O
will	O
face	O
the	O
nontrivial	O
enforcement	O
task	O
of	O
having	O
each	O
user	O
authenticate	O
themselves	O
for	O
the	O
router	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
newest	O
and	O
most	O
rigorous	O
security	O
to	O
implement	O
into	O
WLAN	B-Architecture
's	O
today	O
is	O
the	O
802.11i	B-Protocol
RSN-standard	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
full-fledged	O
802.11i	B-Protocol
standard	O
(	O
which	O
uses	O
WPAv2	O
)	O
however	O
does	O
require	O
the	O
newest	O
hardware	O
(	O
unlike	O
WPAv1	O
)	O
,	O
thus	O
potentially	O
requiring	O
the	O
purchase	O
of	O
new	O
equipment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
new	O
hardware	O
required	O
may	O
be	O
either	O
AES-WRAP	O
(	O
an	O
early	O
version	O
of	O
802.11i	B-Protocol
)	O
or	O
the	O
newer	O
and	O
better	O
AES-CCMP-equipment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
should	O
make	O
sure	O
one	O
needs	O
WRAP	O
or	O
CCMP-equipment	O
,	O
as	O
the	O
2	O
hardware	O
standards	O
are	O
not	O
compatible	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
WPA2	O
is	O
a	O
WiFi	O
Alliance	O
branded	O
version	O
of	O
the	O
final	O
802.11i	B-Protocol
standard	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
primary	O
enhancement	O
over	O
WPA	O
is	O
the	O
inclusion	O
of	O
the	O
AES-CCMP	B-Protocol
algorithm	O
as	O
a	O
mandatory	O
feature	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Both	O
WPA	O
and	O
WPA2	O
support	O
EAP	B-Protocol
authentication	O
methods	O
using	O
RADIUS	B-Protocol
servers	I-Protocol
and	O
preshared	O
key	O
(	O
PSK	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
number	O
of	O
WPA	O
and	O
WPA2	O
networks	O
are	O
increasing	O
,	O
while	O
the	O
number	O
of	O
WEP	B-Protocol
networks	O
are	O
decreasing	O
,	O
because	O
of	O
the	O
security	O
vulnerabilities	O
in	O
WEP	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
vulnerability	O
uses	O
the	O
WPA2	O
Group	O
Temporal	O
Key	O
(	O
GTK	O
)	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
a	O
shared	O
key	O
among	O
all	O
users	O
of	O
the	O
same	O
BSSID	B-General_Concept
,	O
to	O
launch	O
attacks	O
on	O
other	O
users	O
of	O
the	O
same	O
BSSID	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
named	O
after	O
page	O
196	O
of	O
the	O
IEEE	B-Protocol
802.11i	I-Protocol
specification	O
,	O
where	O
the	O
vulnerability	O
is	O
discussed	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Unlike	O
802.1X	O
,	O
802.11i	B-Protocol
already	O
has	O
most	O
other	O
additional	O
security-services	O
such	O
as	O
TKIP	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
Just	O
as	O
with	O
WPAv1	O
,	O
WPAv2	O
may	O
work	O
in	O
cooperation	O
with	O
EAP	B-Protocol
and	O
a	O
WIDS	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
stands	O
for	O
WLAN	B-Architecture
Authentication	O
and	O
Privacy	O
Infrastructure	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
is	O
a	O
wireless	B-Application
security	I-Application
standard	O
defined	O
by	O
the	O
Chinese	O
government	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
USB	B-Protocol
Tokens	O
are	O
physical	O
tokens	O
that	O
connect	O
via	O
USB	B-Protocol
port	O
to	O
authenticate	O
the	O
user	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
can	O
significantly	O
improve	O
wireless	B-Application
security	I-Application
because	O
it	O
's	O
difficult	O
for	O
hackers	O
to	O
receive	O
the	O
signals	O
beyond	O
the	O
controlled	O
area	O
of	O
a	O
facility	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
from	O
a	O
parking	O
lot	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
attacker	O
could	O
knowingly	O
spoof	O
attack	O
packets	O
with	O
the	O
IP	B-Protocol
address	I-Protocol
of	O
a	O
corporate	O
partner	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Broadcasting	O
to	O
the	O
internal	O
network	B-Architecture
could	O
still	O
be	O
used	O
,	O
but	O
only	O
at	O
a	O
limited	O
rate	O
for	O
example	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
open	O
standards	O
such	O
as	O
Kismet	B-Protocol
are	O
targeted	O
towards	O
securing	O
laptops	O
,	O
access	B-Device
points	I-Device
solutions	O
should	O
extend	O
towards	O
covering	O
mobile	O
devices	O
also	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Host	O
based	O
solutions	O
for	O
mobile	O
handsets	O
and	O
PDA	B-Application
's	I-Application
with	O
802.1X	O
interface	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wireless	O
IPS	O
solutions	O
now	O
offer	O
wireless	B-Application
security	I-Application
for	O
mobile	O
devices	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
order	O
to	O
implement	O
802.11i	B-Protocol
,	O
one	O
must	O
first	O
make	O
sure	O
both	O
that	O
the	O
router/access	O
point(s )	O
,	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
all	O
client	O
devices	O
are	O
indeed	O
equipped	O
to	O
support	O
the	O
network	B-Architecture
encryption	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
If	O
this	O
is	O
done	O
,	O
a	O
server	O
such	O
as	O
RADIUS	B-Protocol
,	O
ADS	O
,	O
NDS	B-Application
,	O
or	O
LDAP	B-Protocol
needs	O
to	O
be	O
integrated	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
server	O
can	O
be	O
a	O
computer	O
on	O
the	O
local	B-General_Concept
network	I-General_Concept
,	O
an	O
access	B-Device
point	I-Device
/	O
router	B-Protocol
with	O
integrated	O
authentication	O
server	O
,	O
or	O
a	O
remote	O
server	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
AP's/routers	O
with	O
integrated	O
authentication	O
servers	O
are	O
often	O
very	O
expensive	O
and	O
specifically	O
an	O
option	O
for	O
commercial	O
usage	O
like	O
hot	B-Application
spots	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Server	O
software	O
required	O
is	O
an	O
enterprise	O
authentication	O
server	O
such	O
as	O
RADIUS	B-Protocol
,	O
ADS	O
,	O
NDS	B-Application
,	O
or	O
LDAP	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
Client	O
software	O
comes	O
built-in	O
with	O
Windows	B-Application
XP	O
and	O
may	O
be	O
integrated	O
into	O
other	O
OS	O
's	O
using	O
any	O
of	O
following	O
software	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
Remote	B-Protocol
Authentication	I-Protocol
Dial	I-Protocol
In	I-Protocol
User	I-Protocol
Service	I-Protocol
(	O
RADIUS	B-Protocol
)	O
is	O
an	O
AAA	O
(	O
authentication	O
,	O
authorization	O
and	O
accounting	O
)	O
protocol	O
used	O
for	O
remote	O
network	B-Architecture
access	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
RADIUS	B-Protocol
,	O
developed	O
in	O
1991	O
,	O
was	O
originally	O
proprietary	O
but	O
then	O
published	O
in	O
1997	O
under	O
ISOC	O
documents	O
RFC	O
2138	O
and	O
RFC	O
2139	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
RADIUS	B-Protocol
server	I-Protocol
can	O
also	O
be	O
configured	O
to	O
enforce	O
user	O
policies	O
and	O
restrictions	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
record	O
accounting	O
information	O
such	O
as	O
connection	O
time	O
for	O
purposes	O
such	O
as	O
billing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Today	O
,	O
there	O
is	O
almost	O
full	O
wireless	O
network	B-Architecture
coverage	O
in	O
many	O
urban	O
areas	O
–	O
the	O
infrastructure	O
for	O
the	O
wireless	O
community	O
network	B-Architecture
(	O
which	O
some	O
consider	O
to	O
be	O
the	O
future	O
of	O
the	O
internet	O
)	O
is	O
already	O
in	O
place	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
people	O
consider	O
it	O
proper	O
etiquette	O
to	O
leave	O
access	B-Device
points	I-Device
open	O
to	O
the	O
public	O
,	O
allowing	O
free	O
access	O
to	O
Internet	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Others	O
think	O
the	O
default	O
encryption	O
provides	O
substantial	O
protection	O
at	O
small	O
inconvenience	O
,	O
against	O
dangers	O
of	O
open	O
access	O
that	O
they	O
fear	O
may	O
be	O
substantial	O
even	O
on	O
a	O
home	O
DSL	O
router	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
density	O
of	O
access	B-Device
points	I-Device
can	O
even	O
be	O
a	O
problem	O
–	O
there	O
are	O
a	O
limited	O
number	O
of	O
channels	O
available	O
,	O
and	O
they	O
partly	O
overlap	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
According	O
to	O
the	O
advocates	O
of	O
Open	O
Access	B-Device
Points	I-Device
,	O
it	O
should	O
n't	O
involve	O
any	O
significant	O
risks	O
to	O
open	O
up	O
wireless	O
networks	O
for	O
the	O
public	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
wireless	O
network	B-Architecture
is	O
after	O
all	O
confined	O
to	O
a	O
small	O
geographical	O
area	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
computer	O
connected	O
to	O
the	O
Internet	O
and	O
having	O
improper	O
configurations	O
or	O
other	O
security	O
problems	O
can	O
be	O
exploited	O
by	O
anyone	O
from	O
anywhere	O
in	O
the	O
world	O
,	O
while	O
only	O
clients	O
in	O
a	O
small	O
geographical	O
range	O
can	O
exploit	O
an	O
open	O
wireless	B-Device
access	I-Device
point	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Thus	O
the	O
exposure	O
is	O
low	O
with	O
an	O
open	O
wireless	B-Device
access	I-Device
point	I-Device
,	O
and	O
the	O
risks	O
with	O
having	O
an	O
open	O
wireless	O
network	B-Architecture
are	O
small	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
one	O
should	O
be	O
aware	O
that	O
an	O
open	O
wireless	B-Device
router	I-Device
will	O
give	O
access	O
to	O
the	O
local	B-General_Concept
network	I-General_Concept
,	O
often	O
including	O
access	O
to	O
file	O
shares	O
and	O
printers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
when	O
accessing	O
an	O
internet	O
bank	O
,	O
one	O
would	O
almost	O
always	O
use	O
strong	O
encryption	O
from	O
the	O
web	O
browser	O
and	O
all	O
the	O
way	O
to	O
the	O
bank	O
–	O
thus	O
it	O
should	O
n't	O
be	O
risky	O
to	O
do	O
banking	O
over	O
an	O
unencrypted	O
wireless	O
network	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
argument	O
is	O
that	O
anyone	O
can	O
sniff	B-Protocol
the	O
traffic	O
applies	O
to	O
wired	O
networks	O
too	O
,	O
where	O
system	O
administrators	O
and	O
possible	O
hackers	O
have	O
access	O
to	O
the	O
links	O
and	O
can	O
read	O
the	O
traffic	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Also	O
,	O
anyone	O
knowing	O
the	O
keys	O
for	O
an	O
encrypted	O
wireless	O
network	B-Architecture
can	O
gain	O
access	O
to	O
the	O
data	O
being	O
transferred	O
over	O
the	O
network	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
by	O
password	O
)	O
for	O
accessing	O
it	O
(	O
one	O
should	O
never	O
assume	O
that	O
the	O
private	O
network	B-Architecture
is	O
not	O
accessible	O
from	O
the	O
outside	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Correctly	O
set	O
up	O
,	O
it	O
should	O
be	O
safe	O
to	O
allow	O
access	O
to	O
the	O
local	B-General_Concept
network	I-General_Concept
to	O
outsiders	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
With	O
the	O
most	O
popular	O
encryption	O
algorithms	O
today	O
,	O
a	O
sniffer	O
will	O
usually	O
be	O
able	O
to	O
compute	O
the	O
network	B-Architecture
key	O
in	O
a	O
few	O
minutes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
On	O
the	O
other	O
hand	O
,	O
in	O
some	O
countries	O
including	O
Germany	O
,	O
persons	O
providing	O
an	O
open	O
access	B-Device
point	I-Device
may	O
be	O
made	O
(	O
partially	O
)	O
liable	O
for	O
any	O
illegal	O
activity	O
conducted	O
via	O
this	O
access	B-Device
point	I-Device
.	O
</s>
