<s>
A	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
network	I-General_Concept
is	O
a	O
computer	B-Architecture
network	I-Architecture
that	O
uses	O
wireless	B-Application
data	O
connections	O
between	O
network	B-Protocol
nodes	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wireless	B-General_Concept
networking	I-General_Concept
is	O
a	O
method	O
by	O
which	O
homes	O
,	O
telecommunications	O
networks	O
and	O
business	O
installations	O
avoid	O
the	O
costly	O
process	O
of	O
introducing	O
cables	O
into	O
a	O
building	O
,	O
or	O
as	O
a	O
connection	O
between	O
various	O
equipment	O
locations	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Examples	O
of	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
include	O
cell	O
phone	O
networks	O
,	O
wireless	B-Architecture
local	I-Architecture
area	I-Architecture
networks	I-Architecture
(	O
WLANs	B-Architecture
)	O
,	O
wireless	B-Application
sensor	O
networks	O
,	O
satellite	B-Application
communication	O
networks	O
,	O
and	O
terrestrial	O
microwave	O
networks	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
first	O
professional	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
network	I-General_Concept
was	O
developed	O
under	O
the	O
brand	O
ALOHAnet	O
in	O
1969	O
at	O
the	O
University	O
of	O
Hawaii	O
and	O
became	O
operational	O
in	O
June	O
1971	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
first	O
commercial	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
network	I-General_Concept
was	O
the	O
WaveLAN	O
product	O
family	O
,	O
developed	O
by	O
NCR	O
in	O
1986	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Advances	O
in	O
MOSFET	B-Architecture
(	O
MOS	B-Architecture
transistor	I-Architecture
)	O
wireless	B-Application
technology	O
enabled	O
the	O
development	O
of	O
digital	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
wide	O
adoption	O
of	O
RF	O
CMOS	B-Device
(	O
radio	O
frequency	O
CMOS	B-Device
)	O
,	O
power	O
MOSFET	B-Architecture
and	O
LDMOS	O
(	O
lateral	O
diffused	O
MOS	O
)	O
devices	O
led	O
to	O
the	O
development	O
and	O
proliferation	O
of	O
digital	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
by	O
the	O
1990s	O
,	O
with	O
further	O
advances	O
in	O
MOSFET	B-Architecture
technology	O
leading	O
to	O
increasing	O
bandwidth	O
in	O
the	O
2000s	O
(	O
Edholm	B-Algorithm
's	I-Algorithm
law	I-Algorithm
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Most	O
of	O
the	O
essential	O
elements	O
of	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
are	O
built	O
from	O
MOSFETs	B-Architecture
,	O
including	O
the	O
mobile	O
transceivers	O
,	O
base	O
station	O
modules	O
,	O
routers	B-Protocol
,	O
RF	O
power	O
amplifiers	O
,	O
telecommunication	O
circuits	O
,	O
RF	B-Application
circuits	I-Application
,	O
and	O
radio	O
transceivers	O
,	O
in	O
networks	O
such	O
as	O
2G	O
,	O
3G	B-Architecture
,	O
and	O
4G	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Terrestrial	O
microwave	O
–	O
Terrestrial	O
microwave	B-Application
communication	I-Application
uses	O
Earth-based	O
transmitters	O
and	O
receivers	O
resembling	O
satellite	B-Application
dishes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Communications	O
satellites	B-Application
–	O
Satellites	B-Application
communicate	O
via	O
microwave	B-Application
radio	I-Application
waves	O
,	O
which	O
are	O
not	O
deflected	O
by	O
the	O
Earth	O
's	O
atmosphere	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
satellites	B-Application
are	O
stationed	O
in	O
space	O
,	O
typically	O
in	O
geosynchronous	O
orbit	O
above	O
the	O
equator	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Radio	O
and	O
spread	B-Architecture
spectrum	I-Architecture
technologies	O
–	O
Wireless	B-Architecture
local	I-Architecture
area	I-Architecture
networks	I-Architecture
use	O
a	O
high-frequency	O
radio	O
technology	O
similar	O
to	O
digital	O
cellular	O
and	O
a	O
low-frequency	O
radio	O
technology	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wireless	B-Architecture
LANs	I-Architecture
use	O
spread	B-Architecture
spectrum	I-Architecture
technology	O
to	O
enable	O
communication	O
between	O
multiple	O
devices	O
in	O
a	O
limited	O
area	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
IEEE	O
802.11	O
defines	O
a	O
common	O
flavor	O
of	O
open-standards	O
wireless	B-Application
radio-wave	O
technology	O
known	O
as	O
Wi-Fi	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wireless	B-General_Concept
personal	I-General_Concept
area	I-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
(	O
WPANs	B-General_Concept
)	O
connect	O
devices	O
within	O
a	O
relatively	O
small	O
area	O
,	O
that	O
is	O
generally	O
within	O
a	O
person	O
's	O
reach	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
both	O
Bluetooth	B-Protocol
radio	O
and	O
invisible	O
infrared	O
light	O
provides	O
a	O
WPAN	B-General_Concept
for	O
interconnecting	O
a	O
headset	O
to	O
a	O
laptop	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Zigbee	B-Protocol
also	O
supports	O
WPAN	B-General_Concept
applications	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Intel	O
"	O
My	O
WiFi	O
"	O
and	O
Windows	B-Device
7	I-Device
"	O
virtual	B-Application
Wi-Fi	O
"	O
capabilities	O
have	O
made	O
Wi-Fi	O
PANs	O
simpler	O
and	O
easier	O
to	O
set	O
up	O
and	O
configure	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	B-Architecture
wireless	I-Architecture
local	I-Architecture
area	I-Architecture
network	I-Architecture
(	O
WLAN	B-Architecture
)	O
links	O
two	O
or	O
more	O
devices	O
over	O
a	O
short	O
distance	O
using	O
a	O
wireless	B-Application
distribution	O
method	O
,	O
usually	O
providing	O
a	O
connection	O
through	O
an	O
access	O
point	O
for	O
internet	O
access	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
use	O
of	O
spread-spectrum	B-Architecture
or	O
OFDM	B-Protocol
technologies	O
may	O
allow	O
users	O
to	O
move	O
around	O
within	O
a	O
local	O
coverage	O
area	O
,	O
and	O
still	O
remain	O
connected	O
to	O
the	O
network	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Products	O
using	O
the	O
IEEE	O
802.11	O
WLAN	B-Architecture
standards	O
are	O
marketed	O
under	O
the	O
Wi-Fi	O
brand	O
name	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Fixed	B-General_Concept
wireless	I-General_Concept
technology	O
implements	O
point-to-point	B-Architecture
links	O
between	O
computers	O
or	O
networks	O
at	O
two	O
distant	O
locations	O
,	O
often	O
using	O
dedicated	O
microwave	O
or	O
modulated	O
laser	O
light	O
beams	O
over	O
line	O
of	O
sight	O
paths	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
To	O
connect	O
to	O
Wi-Fi	O
using	O
a	O
mobile	O
device	O
,	O
one	O
can	O
use	O
a	O
device	O
like	O
a	O
wireless	B-Protocol
router	I-Protocol
or	O
the	O
private	B-Application
hotspot	I-Application
capability	O
of	O
another	O
mobile	O
device	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
wireless	B-Application
ad	O
hoc	O
network	O
,	O
also	O
known	O
as	O
a	O
wireless	B-Application
mesh	O
network	O
or	O
mobile	B-Protocol
ad	I-Protocol
hoc	I-Protocol
network	I-Protocol
(	O
MANET	O
)	O
,	O
is	O
a	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
network	I-General_Concept
made	O
up	O
of	O
radio	O
nodes	O
organized	O
in	O
a	O
mesh	O
topology	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Each	O
node	B-Protocol
forwards	O
messages	O
on	O
behalf	O
of	O
the	O
other	O
nodes	O
and	O
each	O
node	B-Protocol
performs	O
routing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Ad	O
hoc	O
networks	O
can	O
"	O
self-heal	O
"	O
,	O
automatically	O
re-routing	O
around	O
a	O
node	B-Protocol
that	O
has	O
lost	O
power	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Various	O
network	O
layer	O
protocols	O
are	O
needed	O
to	O
realize	O
ad	O
hoc	O
mobile	O
networks	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
Distance	O
Sequenced	O
Distance	B-Protocol
Vector	I-Protocol
routing	I-Protocol
,	O
Associativity-Based	B-Device
Routing	I-Device
,	O
Ad	O
hoc	O
on-demand	O
Distance	B-Protocol
Vector	I-Protocol
routing	I-Protocol
,	O
and	O
Dynamic	B-Device
source	I-Device
routing	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wireless	B-Application
metropolitan	O
area	O
networks	O
are	O
a	O
type	O
of	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
network	I-General_Concept
that	O
connects	O
several	O
wireless	B-Architecture
LANs	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
WiMAX	O
is	O
a	O
type	O
of	O
Wireless	B-Application
MAN	O
and	O
is	O
described	O
by	O
the	O
IEEE	O
802.16	O
standard	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wireless	B-General_Concept
wide	I-General_Concept
area	I-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
are	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
that	O
typically	O
cover	O
large	O
areas	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
between	O
neighbouring	O
towns	O
and	O
cities	O
,	O
or	O
city	O
and	O
suburb	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
connections	I-General_Concept
between	O
access	O
points	O
are	O
usually	O
point	B-Architecture
to	I-Architecture
point	I-Architecture
microwave	B-Application
links	I-Application
using	O
parabolic	O
dishes	O
on	O
the	O
2.4GHz	O
and	O
5.8GHz	O
band	O
,	O
rather	O
than	O
omnidirectional	O
antennas	O
used	O
with	O
smaller	O
networks	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
typical	O
system	O
contains	O
base	O
station	O
gateways	O
,	O
access	O
points	O
and	O
wireless	B-Application
bridging	O
relays	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
enables	O
a	O
large	O
number	O
of	O
portable	O
transceivers	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
mobile	O
phones	O
,	O
pagers	B-Application
,	O
etc	O
.	O
)	O
</s>
<s>
Although	O
originally	O
intended	O
for	O
cell	O
phones	O
,	O
with	O
the	O
development	O
of	O
smartphones	B-Application
,	O
cellular	O
telephone	O
networks	O
routinely	O
carry	O
data	O
in	O
addition	O
to	O
telephone	O
conversations	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
Private	O
LTE/5G	O
networks	O
use	O
licensed	O
,	O
shared	O
or	O
unlicensed	O
wireless	B-Application
spectrum	O
thanks	O
to	O
LTE	O
or	O
5G	O
cellular	O
network	O
base	O
stations	O
,	O
small	O
cells	O
and	O
other	O
radio	O
access	O
network	O
(	O
RAN	O
)	O
infrastructure	O
to	O
transmit	O
voice	O
and	O
data	O
to	O
edge	O
devices	O
(	O
smartphones	B-Application
,	O
embedded	O
modules	O
,	O
routers	B-Protocol
and	O
gateways	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
global	O
area	O
network	O
(	O
GAN	O
)	O
is	O
a	O
network	O
used	O
for	O
supporting	O
mobile	O
across	O
an	O
arbitrary	O
number	O
of	O
wireless	B-Architecture
LANs	I-Architecture
,	O
satellite	B-Application
coverage	O
areas	O
,	O
etc	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
IEEE	O
Project	O
802	O
,	O
this	O
involves	O
a	O
succession	O
of	O
terrestrial	O
wireless	B-Architecture
LANs	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
examples	O
of	O
usage	O
include	O
cellular	O
phones	O
which	O
are	O
part	O
of	O
everyday	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
,	O
allowing	O
easy	O
personal	O
communications	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Another	O
example	O
,	O
Intercontinental	O
network	O
systems	O
,	O
use	O
radio	O
satellites	B-Application
to	O
communicate	O
across	O
the	O
world	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Emergency	O
services	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
police	O
utilize	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
to	O
communicate	O
effectively	O
as	O
well	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Individuals	O
and	O
businesses	O
use	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
to	O
send	O
and	O
share	O
data	O
rapidly	O
,	O
whether	O
it	O
be	O
in	O
a	O
small	O
office	O
building	O
or	O
across	O
the	O
world	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
a	O
general	O
sense	O
,	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
offer	O
a	O
vast	O
variety	O
of	O
uses	O
by	O
both	O
business	O
and	O
home	O
users	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
"	O
Now	O
,	O
the	O
industry	O
accepts	O
a	O
handful	O
of	O
different	O
wireless	B-Application
technologies	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Each	O
wireless	B-Application
technology	O
is	O
defined	O
by	O
a	O
standard	O
that	O
describes	O
unique	O
functions	O
at	O
both	O
the	O
Physical	O
and	O
the	O
Data	O
Link	O
layers	O
of	O
the	O
OSI	O
model	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Each	O
standard	O
varies	O
in	O
geographical	O
range	O
,	O
thus	O
making	O
one	O
standard	O
more	O
ideal	O
than	O
the	O
next	O
depending	O
on	O
what	O
it	O
is	O
one	O
is	O
trying	O
to	O
accomplish	O
with	O
a	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
network	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
performance	O
of	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
satisfies	O
a	O
variety	O
of	O
applications	O
such	O
as	O
voice	O
and	O
video	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
use	O
of	O
this	O
technology	O
also	O
gives	O
room	O
for	O
expansions	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
from	O
2G	O
to	O
3G	B-Architecture
and	O
,	O
4G	B-Architecture
and	O
5G	O
technologies	O
,	O
which	O
stand	O
for	O
the	O
fourth	O
and	O
fifth	O
generation	O
of	O
cell	O
phone	O
mobile	O
communications	O
standards	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
networking	I-General_Concept
has	O
become	O
commonplace	O
,	O
sophistication	O
increases	O
through	O
configuration	O
of	O
network	O
hardware	O
and	O
software	O
,	O
and	O
greater	O
capacity	O
to	O
send	O
and	O
receive	O
larger	O
amounts	O
of	O
data	O
,	O
faster	O
,	O
is	O
achieved	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Now	O
the	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
network	I-General_Concept
has	O
been	O
running	O
on	O
LTE	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
a	O
4G	B-Architecture
mobile	I-Architecture
communication	O
standard	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Users	O
of	O
an	O
LTE	O
network	O
should	O
have	O
data	O
speeds	O
that	O
are	O
10x	O
faster	O
than	O
a	O
3G	B-Architecture
network	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Space	O
is	O
another	O
characteristic	O
of	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
networking	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wireless	B-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
offer	O
many	O
advantages	O
when	O
it	O
comes	O
to	O
difficult-to-wire	O
areas	O
trying	O
to	O
communicate	O
such	O
as	O
across	O
a	O
street	O
or	O
river	O
,	O
a	O
warehouse	O
on	O
the	O
other	O
side	O
of	O
the	O
premises	O
or	O
buildings	O
that	O
are	O
physically	O
separated	O
but	O
operate	O
as	O
one	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wireless	B-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
allow	O
for	O
users	O
to	O
designate	O
a	O
certain	O
space	O
which	O
the	O
network	O
will	O
be	O
able	O
to	O
communicate	O
with	O
other	O
devices	O
through	O
that	O
network	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
technology	O
allows	O
for	O
an	O
alternative	O
to	O
installing	O
physical	O
network	O
mediums	O
such	O
as	O
TPs	O
,	O
coaxes	O
,	O
or	O
fiber-optics	B-Architecture
,	O
which	O
can	O
also	O
be	O
expensive	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
homeowners	O
,	O
wireless	B-Application
technology	O
is	O
an	O
effective	O
option	O
compared	O
to	O
Ethernet	O
for	O
sharing	O
printers	O
,	O
scanners	O
,	O
and	O
high-speed	O
Internet	O
connections	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
WLANs	B-Architecture
help	O
save	O
the	O
cost	O
of	O
installation	O
of	O
cable	O
mediums	O
,	O
save	O
time	O
from	O
physical	O
installation	O
,	O
and	O
also	O
creates	O
mobility	O
for	O
devices	O
connected	O
to	O
the	O
network	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wireless	B-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
are	O
simple	O
and	O
require	O
as	O
few	O
as	O
one	O
single	O
wireless	B-Device
access	I-Device
point	I-Device
connected	O
directly	O
to	O
the	O
Internet	O
via	O
a	O
router	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wireless	B-Application
NEs	O
are	O
the	O
products	O
and	O
devices	O
used	O
by	O
a	O
wireless	B-Application
carrier	O
to	O
provide	O
support	O
for	O
the	O
backhaul	B-General_Concept
network	I-General_Concept
as	O
well	O
as	O
a	O
mobile	B-Device
switching	I-Device
center	I-Device
(	O
MSC	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Reliable	O
wireless	B-Application
service	O
depends	O
on	O
the	O
network	O
elements	O
at	O
the	O
physical	O
layer	O
to	O
be	O
protected	O
against	O
all	O
operational	O
environments	O
and	O
applications	O
(	O
see	O
GR-3171	O
,	O
Generic	O
Requirements	O
for	O
Network	O
Elements	O
Used	O
in	O
Wireless	B-General_Concept
Networks	I-General_Concept
–	O
Physical	O
Layer	O
Criteria	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Compared	O
to	O
wired	O
systems	O
,	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
are	O
frequently	O
subject	O
to	O
electromagnetic	O
interference	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
hidden	B-General_Concept
node	I-General_Concept
problem	I-General_Concept
occurs	O
in	O
some	O
types	O
of	O
network	O
when	O
a	O
node	B-Protocol
is	O
visible	O
from	O
a	O
wireless	B-Device
access	I-Device
point	I-Device
(	O
AP	O
)	O
,	O
but	O
not	O
from	O
other	O
nodes	O
communicating	O
with	O
that	O
AP	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
leads	O
to	O
difficulties	O
in	O
media	B-Protocol
access	I-Protocol
control	I-Protocol
(	O
collisions	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
exposed	B-General_Concept
terminal	I-General_Concept
problem	I-General_Concept
is	O
when	O
a	O
node	B-Protocol
on	O
one	O
network	O
is	O
unable	O
to	O
send	O
because	O
of	O
co-channel	O
interference	O
from	O
a	O
node	B-Protocol
that	O
is	O
on	O
a	O
different	O
network	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
wireless	B-Application
spectrum	O
is	O
a	O
limited	O
resource	O
and	O
shared	O
by	O
all	O
nodes	O
in	O
the	O
range	O
of	O
its	O
transmitters	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Bandwidth	B-Algorithm
allocation	I-Algorithm
becomes	O
complex	O
with	O
multiple	O
participating	O
users	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
User-in-the-loop	B-Protocol
(	O
UIL	O
)	O
may	O
be	O
an	O
alternative	O
solution	O
to	O
ever	O
upgrading	O
to	O
newer	O
technologies	O
for	O
over-provisioning	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Shannon	O
's	O
theorem	O
can	O
describe	O
the	O
maximum	O
data	O
rate	O
of	O
any	O
single	O
wireless	B-Application
link	O
,	O
which	O
relates	O
to	O
the	O
bandwidth	O
in	O
hertz	O
and	O
to	O
the	O
noise	O
on	O
the	O
channel	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Cellular	O
wireless	B-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
generally	O
have	O
good	O
capacity	O
,	O
due	O
to	O
their	O
use	O
of	O
directional	O
aerials	O
,	O
and	O
their	O
ability	O
to	O
reuse	O
radio	O
channels	O
in	O
non-adjacent	O
cells	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wireless	B-Device
access	I-Device
points	I-Device
are	O
also	O
often	O
close	O
to	O
humans	O
,	O
but	O
the	O
drop	O
off	O
in	O
power	O
over	O
distance	O
is	O
fast	O
,	O
following	O
the	O
inverse-square	O
law	O
.	O
</s>
