<s>
Value-level	B-Application
programming	I-Application
refers	O
to	O
one	O
of	O
the	O
two	O
contrasting	O
programming	O
paradigms	O
identified	O
by	O
John	O
Backus	O
in	O
his	O
work	O
on	O
programs	O
as	O
mathematical	O
objects	O
,	O
the	O
other	O
being	O
function-level	B-Application
programming	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Backus	O
originally	O
used	O
the	O
term	O
object-level	B-Application
programming	I-Application
but	O
that	O
term	O
is	O
now	O
prone	O
to	O
confusion	O
with	O
object-oriented	B-Language
programming	I-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Value-level	B-Application
programs	O
are	O
those	O
that	O
describe	O
how	O
to	O
combine	O
various	O
values	O
(	O
i.e.	O
,	O
numbers	O
,	O
symbols	O
,	O
strings	O
,	O
etc	O
.	O
)	O
</s>
<s>
Conventional	O
,	O
von	O
Neumann	O
programs	O
are	O
value-level	B-Application
:	O
expressions	O
on	O
the	O
right	O
side	O
of	O
assignment	O
statements	O
are	O
exclusively	O
concerned	O
with	O
building	O
a	O
value	O
that	O
is	O
then	O
to	O
be	O
stored	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
value-level	B-Application
approach	O
to	O
programming	O
invites	O
the	O
study	O
of	O
the	O
space	O
of	O
values	O
under	O
the	O
value-forming	O
operations	O
,	O
and	O
of	O
the	O
algebraic	O
properties	O
of	O
those	O
operations	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lambda	O
calculus-based	O
languages	O
(	O
such	O
as	O
Lisp	B-Language
,	O
ISWIM	B-Language
,	O
and	O
Scheme	B-Language
)	O
are	O
in	O
actual	O
practice	O
value-level	B-Application
languages	O
,	O
although	O
they	O
are	O
not	O
thus	O
restricted	O
by	O
design	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
If	O
the	O
term	O
values	O
is	O
defined	O
to	O
include	O
the	O
value	O
variables	O
themselves	O
,	O
then	O
the	O
value-level	B-Application
view	O
of	O
programming	O
is	O
one	O
of	O
building	O
values	O
by	O
the	O
application	O
of	O
existing	O
programs	O
(	O
value-forming	O
operations/functions	O
)	O
to	O
other	O
values	O
.	O
</s>
