<s>
Traditional	B-Application
knowledge	I-Application
GIS	I-Application
differ	O
in	O
comparison	O
to	O
ordinary	O
cognitive	O
maps	O
in	O
that	O
they	O
express	O
environmental	O
and	O
spiritual	O
relationships	O
among	O
real	O
and	O
conceptual	O
entities	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Traditional	B-Application
knowledge	I-Application
GIS	I-Application
employs	O
cartographic	O
and	O
database	B-Application
management	I-Application
techniques	O
such	O
as	O
participatory	B-Application
GIS	I-Application
,	O
map	O
biographies	O
,	O
and	O
historical	B-Application
mapping	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Participatory	B-Application
GIS	I-Application
aspires	O
to	O
a	O
mutually	O
beneficial	O
relationship	O
between	O
the	O
governing	O
and	O
the	O
governed	O
by	O
fostering	O
public	O
involvement	O
in	O
all	O
aspects	O
of	O
a	O
GIS	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Participatory	B-Application
GIS	I-Application
can	O
be	O
effective	O
for	O
local	O
resource	O
management	O
and	O
planning	O
,	O
but	O
researchers	O
doubt	O
its	O
efficacy	O
as	O
a	O
tool	O
in	O
attaining	O
land	O
tenure	O
or	O
fighting	O
legal	O
battles	O
because	O
of	O
lack	O
of	O
expertise	O
among	O
local	O
individuals	O
and	O
lack	O
of	O
access	O
to	O
technology	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Historical	B-Application
mapping	I-Application
documents	O
and	O
analyzes	O
events	O
that	O
are	O
meaningful	O
to	O
a	O
particular	O
tradition	O
or	O
locale	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Cultural	O
preservation	O
is	O
perhaps	O
the	O
principal	O
application	O
of	O
a	O
traditional	B-Application
knowledge	I-Application
GIS	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Researchers	O
encounter	O
significant	O
obstacles	O
to	O
data	O
acquisition	O
due	O
to	O
the	O
sensitive	O
natures	O
of	O
much	O
of	O
the	O
data	O
sought	O
for	O
a	O
traditional	B-Application
knowledge	I-Application
GIS	I-Application
,	O
and	O
locals	O
may	O
distrust	O
the	O
motives	O
of	O
outside	O
consultants	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Traditional	B-Application
knowledge	I-Application
GIS	I-Application
have	O
the	O
power	O
to	O
frame	O
debates	O
over	O
land	O
rights	O
and	O
resource	O
management	O
in	O
ecologically	O
sensitive	O
areas	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Economic	O
development	O
through	O
traditional	B-Application
knowledge	I-Application
GIS	I-Application
is	O
requisite	O
to	O
local	O
ownership	O
over	O
the	O
systems	O
and	O
full	O
access	O
to	O
relevant	O
data	O
and	O
training	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
is	O
a	O
disparate	O
nature	O
to	O
implementations	O
of	O
traditional	B-Application
knowledge	I-Application
GIS	I-Application
across	O
geographies	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Though	O
developing	O
nations	O
utilize	O
some	O
forms	O
of	O
participatory	B-Application
GIS	I-Application
,	O
communities	O
there	O
are	O
less	O
likely	O
to	O
gain	O
access	O
to	O
expensive	O
databases	B-Application
and	O
cartographic	O
methods	O
than	O
those	O
in	O
developed	O
nations	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
overall	O
effectiveness	O
of	O
traditional	B-Application
knowledge	I-Application
GIS	I-Application
has	O
not	O
been	O
determined	O
conclusively	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Advocates	O
for	O
traditional	O
mapping	O
point	O
to	O
successes	O
in	O
acquiring	O
land	O
titles	O
,	O
managing	O
local	O
databases	B-Application
,	O
and	O
creating	O
new	O
skill	O
sets	O
for	O
local	O
communities	O
worldwide	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Traditional	B-Application
knowledge	I-Application
GIS	I-Application
analyze	O
the	O
nature	O
of	O
political	O
and	O
social	O
struggles	O
that	O
lead	O
to	O
competing	O
resource	O
claims	O
.	O
</s>
