<s>
International	O
Computers	O
Limited	O
(	O
ICL	O
)	O
was	O
a	O
British	O
computer	B-Architecture
hardware	I-Architecture
,	O
computer	B-Application
software	I-Application
and	O
computer	B-Architecture
services	I-Architecture
company	O
that	O
operated	O
from	O
1968	O
until	O
2002	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
was	O
formed	O
through	O
a	O
merger	O
of	O
International	O
Computers	O
and	O
Tabulators	O
(	O
ICT	O
)	O
,	O
English	B-Device
Electric	I-Device
Computers	I-Device
(	O
EEC	O
)	O
and	O
Elliott	O
Automation	O
in	O
1968	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
company	O
's	O
most	O
successful	O
product	O
line	O
was	O
the	O
ICL	B-Device
2900	I-Device
Series	I-Device
range	O
of	O
mainframe	B-Architecture
computers	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
later	O
years	O
,	O
ICL	O
diversified	O
its	O
product	O
line	O
but	O
the	O
bulk	O
of	O
its	O
profits	O
always	O
came	O
from	O
its	O
mainframe	B-Architecture
customers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
New	O
ventures	O
included	O
marketing	O
a	O
range	O
of	O
powerful	O
IBM	O
clones	O
made	O
by	O
Fujitsu	O
,	O
various	O
minicomputer	O
and	O
personal	B-Device
computer	I-Device
ranges	O
and	O
(	O
more	O
successfully	O
)	O
a	O
range	O
of	O
retail	O
point-of-sale	O
equipment	O
and	O
back-office	O
software	B-Application
.	I-Application
</s>
<s>
Although	O
it	O
had	O
significant	O
sales	O
overseas	O
,	O
ICL	O
's	O
mainframe	B-Architecture
business	O
was	O
dominated	O
by	O
large	O
contracts	O
from	O
the	O
UK	O
public	O
sector	O
,	O
including	O
Post	O
Office	O
Ltd	O
,	O
the	O
Inland	O
Revenue	O
,	O
the	O
Department	O
for	O
Work	O
and	O
Pensions	O
and	O
the	O
Ministry	O
of	O
Defence	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
also	O
had	O
a	O
strong	O
market	O
share	O
with	O
UK	O
local	O
authorities	O
and	O
(	O
at	B-Operating_System
that	O
time	O
)	O
nationalised	O
utilities	O
including	O
the	O
water	O
,	O
electricity	O
,	O
and	O
gas	O
boards	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ICL	O
was	O
an	O
initiative	O
of	O
Tony	O
Benn	O
,	O
the	O
Minister	O
of	O
Technology	O
,	O
to	O
create	O
a	O
British	O
computer	B-General_Concept
industry	I-General_Concept
that	O
could	O
compete	O
with	O
major	O
world	O
manufacturers	O
like	O
IBM	O
;	O
the	O
formation	O
of	O
the	O
company	O
was	O
the	O
last	O
in	O
a	O
series	O
of	O
mergers	O
that	O
had	O
taken	O
place	O
in	O
the	O
industry	O
since	O
the	O
late	O
1950s	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
main	O
portions	O
of	O
ICL	O
were	O
formed	O
by	O
merging	O
International	O
Computers	O
and	O
Tabulators	O
(	O
ICT	O
)	O
with	O
English	B-Device
Electric	I-Device
Computers	I-Device
,	O
the	O
latter	O
a	O
recent	O
merger	O
of	O
Elliott	O
Automation	O
with	O
English	B-Device
Electric	I-Device
Leo	I-Device
Marconi	I-Device
computers	O
,	O
which	O
itself	O
had	O
been	O
a	O
merger	O
of	O
the	O
computer	O
divisions	O
of	O
English	O
Electric	O
,	O
LEO	B-Device
and	O
Marconi	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ICT	O
was	O
itself	O
the	O
result	O
of	O
a	O
merger	O
of	O
two	O
UK	O
companies	O
that	O
had	O
competed	O
with	O
each	O
other	O
throughout	O
the	O
1930s	O
and	O
1940s	O
during	O
the	O
punched	B-Architecture
card	I-Architecture
era	O
:	O
British	O
Tabulating	O
Machine	O
Company	O
(	O
BTM	O
)	O
and	O
Powers-Samas	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ICT	O
had	O
thus	O
emerged	O
with	O
equipment	O
that	O
would	O
process	O
data	O
encoded	O
on	O
punched	B-Architecture
cards	I-Architecture
with	O
40	O
,	O
80	O
or	O
160	O
columns	O
,	O
compared	O
to	O
the	O
64	O
or	O
80	B-Architecture
columns	I-Architecture
used	O
by	O
IBM	O
and	O
its	O
predecessors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1962	O
,	O
ICT	O
delivered	O
the	O
first	O
ICT	B-Device
1300	I-Device
series	I-Device
computer	I-Device
,	O
its	O
first	O
transistor	O
machine	O
and	O
also	O
the	O
first	O
to	O
use	O
core	O
memory	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
On	O
their	O
return	O
home	O
they	O
quickly	O
produced	O
the	O
Ferranti-Packard	B-Device
6000	I-Device
,	O
developing	O
the	O
machine	O
,	O
compilers	B-Language
and	O
an	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
(	O
before	O
these	O
were	O
common	O
)	O
and	O
putting	O
it	O
on	O
the	O
market	O
by	O
1963	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
feature	O
of	O
the	O
Executive	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
was	O
its	O
ability	O
to	O
multitask	B-Operating_System
,	O
using	O
dynamic	O
memory	O
allocation	O
enabled	O
with	O
a	O
magnetic	B-General_Concept
drum	I-General_Concept
as	O
an	O
intermediate	O
random	O
access	O
device	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Management	O
looked	O
at	B-Operating_System
the	O
FP	O
6000	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
licensing	O
the	O
RCA	B-Device
Spectra	I-Device
70	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
result	O
was	O
the	O
ICT	B-Device
1900	I-Device
series	I-Device
,	O
which	O
would	O
eventually	O
go	O
on	O
to	O
sell	O
into	O
the	O
thousands	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
1900	B-Device
Series	I-Device
,	O
which	O
derived	O
from	O
the	O
Canadian	O
Ferranti-Packard	B-Device
6000	I-Device
,	O
competed	O
successfully	O
in	O
the	O
UK	O
with	O
the	O
IBM	B-Application
System/360	I-Application
range	O
from	O
the	O
mid-1960s	O
to	O
the	O
mid-1970s	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
early	O
machines	O
(	O
1904/1905	O
with	O
hardware	B-Architecture
floating	O
point	O
)	O
had	O
only	O
15-bit	O
addressing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
E4RM	O
–	O
a	O
significantly	O
rewritten	O
version	O
of	O
E4BM	O
,	O
with	O
parts	O
of	O
the	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
overlaid	O
to	O
save	O
space	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
E6RM	B-Device
–	O
a	O
rewritten	O
version	O
of	O
E4RM	O
overlay	O
software	O
for	O
the	O
later	O
machines	O
with	O
22	O
bit	O
addressing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
later	O
development	O
was	O
GEORGE3	B-General_Concept
,	O
remembered	O
with	O
great	O
affection	O
by	O
a	O
generation	O
of	O
British	O
programmers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
E3RM	B-Device
)	O
and	O
versions	O
of	O
the	O
GEORGE	B-General_Concept
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
(	O
initially	O
GEORGE1	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
At	B-Operating_System
a	O
time	O
(	O
in	O
the	O
1960s	O
and	O
1970s	O
)	O
when	O
IBM/360	B-Application
series	O
programs	O
had	O
to	O
be	O
recompiled	B-Language
to	O
run	O
in	O
different	O
machine	O
and/or	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
environments	O
,	O
one	O
significant	O
feature	O
of	O
the	O
1900	B-Device
series	I-Device
was	O
that	O
programs	O
would	O
function	O
unaltered	O
on	O
any	O
1900	O
system	O
,	O
without	O
the	O
need	O
for	O
recompilation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
During	O
the	O
same	O
period	O
,	O
LEO	B-Device
was	O
struggling	O
to	O
produce	O
its	O
own	O
machines	O
that	O
would	O
be	O
able	O
to	O
compete	O
with	O
IBM	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
English	O
Electric	O
had	O
developed	O
a	O
series	O
of	O
machines	O
over	O
the	O
years	O
,	O
notably	O
the	O
famous	O
KDF9	B-Device
and	O
the	O
commercially	O
oriented	O
KDF8	B-Device
,	O
but	O
never	O
had	O
much	O
commercial	O
success	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Now	O
with	O
serious	O
financial	O
backing	O
at	B-Operating_System
its	O
disposal	O
,	O
the	O
new	O
company	O
nevertheless	O
decided	O
not	O
to	O
come	O
up	O
with	O
its	O
own	O
design	O
,	O
and	O
instead	O
licensed	O
the	O
RCA	B-Device
Spectra	I-Device
70	I-Device
(	O
the	O
design	O
ICT	O
rejected	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
result	O
was	O
the	O
System	B-Device
4	I-Device
series	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
model	O
4/75	O
was	O
also	O
supplied	O
to	O
the	O
EELM	B-Device
(	O
later	O
Baric	O
)	O
Bureau	O
subsidiary	O
and	O
installed	O
at	B-Operating_System
Winsford	O
,	O
Cheshire	O
as	O
the	O
hardware	B-Architecture
for	O
a	O
bureau-developed	O
commercial	O
system	O
for	O
interactive	O
use	O
by	O
bureau	O
customers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
System	B-Device
4	I-Device
series	O
ran	O
the	O
J	O
(	O
for	O
Job	O
)	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
was	O
a	O
batch	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
,	O
although	O
there	O
was	O
a	O
variant	O
that	O
allowed	O
interactive	O
access	O
called	O
MultiJob	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Programming	O
languages	O
used	O
were	O
assembler	B-Language
and	O
COBOL	B-Application
and	O
Fortran	B-Application
(	O
an	O
Algol	B-Language
60	I-Language
compiler	B-Language
was	O
provided	O
but	O
not	O
used	O
much	O
,	O
if	O
at	B-Operating_System
all	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
system	O
was	O
controlled	O
from	O
a	O
console	O
composed	O
of	O
a	O
mechanical	O
printer	O
and	O
keyboard	O
–	O
very	O
like	O
a	O
Teletype	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
assembly	B-Language
language	I-Language
(	O
known	O
as	O
Usercode	O
)	O
non-privileged	O
instruction	O
set	O
was	O
identical	O
to	O
IBM	B-Application
System	I-Application
360	I-Application
Assembly	B-Language
Language	I-Language
;	O
in	O
privileged	O
mode	O
there	O
were	O
a	O
few	O
extras	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
System	B-Device
4	I-Device
's	O
compatibility	O
with	O
the	O
IBM	B-Application
360	I-Application
made	O
it	O
particularly	O
attractive	O
to	O
customers	O
in	O
Eastern	O
Europe	O
and	O
the	O
Soviet	O
Union	O
,	O
as	O
the	O
sale	O
and	O
installation	O
of	O
IBM	O
computers	O
(	O
and	O
other	O
American	O
technologies	O
)	O
there	O
was	O
politically	O
sensitive	O
and	O
commercially	O
restricted	O
during	O
the	O
Cold	B-Application
War	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
LEO	B-Device
computer	I-Device
Leo	B-Device
3	O
–	O
origins	O
in	O
J	O
.	O
Lyons	O
and	O
Co	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
At	B-Operating_System
the	O
time	O
of	O
the	O
original	O
merger	O
,	O
the	O
company	O
inherited	O
extensive	O
engineering	O
and	O
manufacturing	O
facilities	O
in	O
West	O
Gorton	O
,	O
Manchester	O
;	O
Castlereagh	O
in	O
Belfast	O
,	O
Stevenage	O
and	O
Croydon	O
from	O
ICT	O
,	O
and	O
from	O
English	O
Electric	O
in	O
Kidsgrove	O
,	O
Staffordshire	O
and	O
Winsford	O
,	O
Cheshire	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Manufacture	O
and	O
assembly	O
also	O
took	O
place	O
at	B-Operating_System
several	O
factories	O
in	O
Letchworth	O
Garden	O
City	O
(	O
the	O
original	O
home	O
of	O
the	O
British	O
Tabulating	O
Company	O
)	O
and	O
Croydon	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
company	O
had	O
a	O
large	O
research	O
,	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
and	O
software	O
development	O
and	O
support	O
centre	O
in	O
Bracknell	O
,	O
another	O
smaller	O
one	O
at	B-Operating_System
Dalkeith	O
in	O
Scotland	O
and	O
a	O
software	O
development	O
centre	O
in	O
Adelaide	O
,	O
South	O
Australia	O
,	O
between	O
1970	O
and	O
1973	O
,	O
application	O
development	O
in	O
Reading	O
,	O
and	O
training	O
centres	O
at	B-Operating_System
Moor	O
Hall	O
(	O
Cookham	O
)	O
,	O
Beaumont	O
College	O
(	O
Old	O
Windsor	O
)	O
(	O
sales	O
,	O
support	O
and	O
software	O
)	O
and	O
Letchworth	O
(	O
Hertfordshire	O
)	O
(	O
manufacturing	O
&	O
field	O
engineering	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
company	O
also	O
had	O
manufacturing	O
facilities	O
in	O
Park	O
Road	O
Mill	O
,	O
Dukinfield	O
;	O
later	O
replaced	O
by	O
a	O
purpose	O
built	O
factory	O
at	B-Operating_System
Ashton-under-Lyne	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Other	O
offices	O
included	O
a	O
facility	O
at	B-Operating_System
Bridgford	O
House	O
in	O
Nottingham	O
which	O
was	O
the	O
headquarters	O
of	O
Rushcliffe	O
Borough	O
Council	O
,	O
but	O
has	O
since	O
been	O
converted	O
into	O
apartments	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
some	O
years	O
ICL	O
maintained	O
a	O
training	O
and	O
presentation	O
facility	O
for	O
senior	O
management	O
at	B-Operating_System
Hedsor	O
House	O
,	O
near	O
Taplow	O
,	O
Berkshire	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ICL	O
and	O
its	O
customers	O
often	O
referred	O
to	O
these	O
locations	O
by	O
the	O
Site	O
Code	O
,	O
especially	O
where	O
multiple	O
sites	O
might	O
exist	O
in	O
a	O
town	O
,	O
for	O
instance	O
with	O
the	O
Putney	O
headquarters	O
building	O
(	O
now	O
Putney	O
Wharf	O
Tower	O
)	O
being	O
LON11	O
(	O
London	O
11	O
)	O
,	O
the	O
training	O
college	O
at	B-Operating_System
Beaumont	O
being	O
WSR01	O
(	O
Windsor	O
01	O
)	O
and	O
the	O
southern	O
System	O
Support	O
Centre	O
(	O
SCC	O
)	O
at	B-Operating_System
Bracknell	O
,	O
Berkshire	O
being	O
BRA01	O
(	O
Bracknell	O
01	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
BRA05	O
was	O
the	O
new	O
headquarters	O
of	O
ICL	O
(	O
UK	O
)	O
Ltd	O
,	O
the	O
company	O
's	O
UK	O
sales	O
and	O
customer	O
service	O
division	O
which	O
moved	O
from	O
its	O
original	O
base	O
at	B-Operating_System
Putney	O
Bridge	O
House	O
(	O
LON13	O
)	O
in	O
Fulham	O
,	O
London	O
to	O
a	O
new	O
building	O
in	O
Bracknell	O
in	O
the	O
late	O
1980s	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
On	O
its	O
formation	O
,	O
the	O
company	O
inherited	O
two	O
main	O
product	O
lines	O
:	O
from	O
ICT	O
the	O
1900	B-Device
Series	I-Device
of	O
mainframes	B-Architecture
,	O
and	O
from	O
English	B-Device
Electric	I-Device
Computers	I-Device
(	O
EEC	O
)	O
the	O
System	B-Device
4	I-Device
,	O
a	O
range	O
of	O
IBM	B-Application
System/360	I-Application
-compatible	O
mainframe	B-Architecture
clones	O
,	O
based	O
on	O
the	O
RCA	B-Device
Spectra	I-Device
70	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Although	O
still	O
the	O
largest	O
European	O
computer	B-General_Concept
company	I-General_Concept
,	O
in	O
1971	O
ICL	O
had	O
a	O
poor	O
reputation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
the	O
companies	O
were	O
first	O
merged	O
the	O
EEC	O
order	O
books	O
were	O
full	O
,	O
while	O
ICT	O
(	O
which	O
had	O
twice	O
as	O
many	O
employees	O
)	O
was	O
struggling	O
,	O
perhaps	O
because	O
it	O
was	O
already	O
obvious	O
that	O
the	O
1900	B-Device
series	I-Device
was	O
incompatible	O
with	O
the	O
rest	O
of	O
the	O
industry	O
,	O
with	O
an	O
architecture	O
based	O
on	O
a	O
24	O
bit	O
word	O
and	O
6	O
bit	O
character	O
rather	O
than	O
the	O
8	O
bit	O
byte	O
that	O
was	O
becoming	O
the	O
industry	O
norm	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
new	O
board	O
decided	O
that	O
the	O
1900	O
should	O
be	O
phased	O
out	O
in	O
favour	O
of	O
the	O
System	B-Device
4	I-Device
,	O
but	O
shortly	O
afterwards	O
reversed	O
their	O
decision	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
any	O
event	O
,	O
most	O
of	O
the	O
original	O
EEC	O
board	O
resigned	O
over	O
the	O
interference	O
as	O
they	O
believed	O
that	O
the	O
1900	B-Device
series	I-Device
was	O
doomed	O
from	O
the	O
outset	O
,	O
being	O
incompatible	O
with	O
the	O
rest	O
of	O
the	O
marketplace	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Until	O
the	O
1970s	O
launch	O
of	O
the	O
2900	B-Device
Series	I-Device
,	O
the	O
UK	O
government	O
had	O
a	O
single-tender	O
preferential	O
purchase	O
agreement	O
wherever	O
ICL	O
could	O
meet	O
the	O
requirements	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
resulting	O
2900	B-Device
Series	I-Device
was	O
launched	O
on	O
9	O
October	O
1974	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Its	O
design	O
drew	O
on	O
many	O
sources	O
,	O
one	O
being	O
the	O
Manchester	O
University	O
MU5	B-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
ran	O
the	O
VME	B-General_Concept
operating	B-General_Concept
systems	I-General_Concept
,	O
and	O
supported	O
emulation	O
of	O
both	O
the	O
earlier	O
architectures	O
(	O
1900	B-Device
Series	I-Device
and	O
System	B-Device
4	I-Device
)	O
,	O
either	O
standalone	O
(	O
DME	B-Operating_System
,	O
Direct	B-Operating_System
Machine	I-Operating_System
Environment	I-Operating_System
)	O
or	O
concurrently	O
with	O
native-mode	B-Language
operation	O
(	O
CME	O
,	O
Concurrent	O
Machine	O
Environment	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
term	O
"	O
New	O
Range	O
"	O
was	O
used	O
during	O
development	O
for	O
the	O
product	O
line	O
that	O
was	O
eventually	O
launched	O
as	O
the	O
2900	B-Device
Series	I-Device
,	O
the	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
being	O
known	O
initially	O
as	O
VME/B	B-General_Concept
and	O
later	O
simply	O
as	O
VME	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
ran	O
the	O
VME	B-General_Concept
and	O
DME	B-Operating_System
(	O
emulation	O
)	O
operating	B-General_Concept
systems	I-General_Concept
,	O
and	O
were	O
available	O
in	O
both	O
single	O
and	O
multi-processor	O
configurations	O
,	O
the	O
later	O
being	O
known	O
as	O
Duals	O
and	O
SuperDuals	O
(	O
2966	O
and	O
2988	O
only	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
world	O
's	O
first	O
commercially	O
available	O
massively	B-Operating_System
parallel	I-Operating_System
computer	I-Operating_System
,	O
the	O
Distributed	B-Device
Array	I-Device
Processor	I-Device
(	O
DAP	O
)	O
,	O
that	O
first	O
ran	O
as	O
an	O
attached	O
processor	O
to	O
the	O
ICL	B-Device
2980	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Series	B-Device
39	I-Device
followed	O
the	O
same	O
essential	O
architecture	O
as	O
2900	B-Device
series	I-Device
,	O
but	O
was	O
a	O
dramatic	O
step	O
forward	O
in	O
hardware	B-Architecture
technology	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
was	O
the	O
first	O
commercial	O
mainframe	B-Architecture
to	O
exploit	O
optical	O
fibres	O
for	O
central	O
interconnect	O
,	O
and	O
also	O
introduced	O
a	O
multi-CPU	O
(	O
multinode	O
)	O
architecture	O
transparent	O
to	O
the	O
applications	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
training	O
video	O
for	O
the	O
Series	B-Device
39	I-Device
featured	O
the	O
comedy	O
duo	O
Hugh	O
Laurie	O
and	O
Stephen	O
Fry	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ICL	O
received	O
the	O
Queen	O
's	O
Award	O
for	O
Technological	O
Achievement	O
for	O
the	O
Series	B-Device
39	I-Device
in	O
1988	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
At	B-Operating_System
the	O
inception	O
of	O
New	O
Range	O
development	O
,	O
two	O
operating	B-General_Concept
systems	I-General_Concept
were	O
planned	O
:	O
System	O
B	O
for	O
the	O
large	O
processors	O
,	O
and	O
System	O
D	O
for	O
the	O
mid-range	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
System	O
B	O
was	O
subsequently	O
renamed	O
VME/B	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
third	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
,	O
System	O
T	O
,	O
was	O
subsequently	O
targeted	O
at	B-Operating_System
small	O
machines	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
System	O
D	O
was	O
dropped	O
in	O
order	O
to	O
focus	O
efforts	O
on	O
VME/B	B-General_Concept
and	O
System	O
T	O
,	O
renamed	O
to	O
VME/K	B-General_Concept
(	O
Confusingly	O
,	O
VME/B	B-General_Concept
was	O
developed	O
in	O
Kidsgrove	O
,	O
VME/K	B-General_Concept
in	O
Bracknell	O
.	O
)	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
first	O
large	O
machines	O
(	O
the	O
2980	O
and	O
2970	O
)	O
were	O
launched	O
with	O
VME/B	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
VME/K	B-General_Concept
first	O
saw	O
service	O
on	O
the	O
2960	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
chief	O
architect	O
of	O
VME/B	B-General_Concept
was	O
Brian	O
Warboys	O
,	O
who	O
subsequently	O
became	O
professor	O
of	O
software	O
engineering	O
at	B-Operating_System
the	O
University	O
of	O
Manchester	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
VME/B	B-General_Concept
was	O
developed	O
using	O
the	O
pioneering	O
software	O
engineering	O
system	O
CADES	O
as	O
the	O
development	O
environment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
VME/K	B-General_Concept
development	O
continued	O
independently	O
for	O
several	O
reasons	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Early	O
VME/B	B-General_Concept
customers	O
suffered	O
significant	O
performance	O
and	O
reliability	O
problems	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
existence	O
of	O
an	O
alternative	O
product	O
provided	O
a	O
safety	O
net	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Perhaps	O
more	O
significantly	O
,	O
VME/K	B-General_Concept
was	O
the	O
brainchild	O
of	O
Ed	O
Mack	O
,	O
who	O
had	O
been	O
brought	O
in	O
by	O
managing	O
director	O
Geoff	O
Cross	O
as	O
ICL	O
's	O
head	O
of	O
research	O
and	O
development	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Despite	O
his	O
wide	O
responsibilities	O
,	O
Mack	O
took	O
a	O
detailed	O
personal	O
interest	O
in	O
every	O
aspect	O
of	O
VME/K	B-General_Concept
design	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Not	O
only	O
was	O
too	O
much	O
resource	O
going	O
into	O
VME/K	B-General_Concept
at	B-Operating_System
the	O
expense	O
of	O
the	O
VME/B	B-General_Concept
system	O
that	O
ICL	O
's	O
biggest	O
customers	O
were	O
actually	O
using	O
,	O
but	O
the	O
development	O
of	O
mainframe	B-Architecture
systems	O
was	O
also	O
diverting	O
expenditure	O
from	O
small	O
business	O
systems	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
2903	O
,	O
whose	O
sales	O
were	O
growing	O
much	O
more	O
rapidly	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
of	O
their	O
first	O
actions	O
was	O
to	O
end	O
VME/K	B-General_Concept
development	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
happened	O
just	O
at	B-Operating_System
the	O
time	O
that	O
VME/K	B-General_Concept
had	O
finally	O
reached	O
a	O
level	O
of	O
performance	O
and	O
reliability	O
that	O
made	O
it	O
saleable	O
;	O
however	O
,	O
the	O
customer	O
base	O
was	O
very	O
small	O
,	O
and	O
by	O
this	O
time	O
VME/B	B-General_Concept
(	O
which	O
was	O
renamed	O
VME	B-General_Concept
2900	I-General_Concept
)	O
had	O
also	O
matured	O
sufficiently	O
to	O
give	O
confidence	O
that	O
it	O
would	O
meet	O
the	O
future	O
requirements	O
for	O
the	O
entire	O
mainframe	B-Architecture
range	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
VME	B-General_Concept
2900	I-General_Concept
subsequently	O
became	O
simply	O
VME	B-General_Concept
and	O
then	O
Open	O
VME	B-General_Concept
,	O
and	O
continued	O
to	O
evolve	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ICL	O
used	O
the	O
term	O
superstructure	O
to	O
refer	O
to	O
the	O
compilers	B-Language
,	O
data	O
management	O
tools	O
,	O
and	O
transaction	O
processing	O
software	O
sitting	O
above	O
the	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
but	O
below	O
the	O
user	O
application	O
–	O
a	O
category	O
now	O
often	O
labelled	O
middleware	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
IDMS(X )	O
Integrated	O
Database	O
Management	O
System	O
–	O
a	O
Codasyl	B-Language
database	O
,	O
ported	O
and	O
extended	O
from	O
the	O
IDMS	B-Application
system	O
developed	O
by	O
Cullinane	O
(	O
later	O
Cullinet	O
)	O
.TPMS(X )	O
Transaction	O
Processing	O
Management	O
System	O
–	O
a	O
transaction	O
processing	O
monitorDDS	O
(	O
X	O
)	O
Data	O
Dictionary	O
SystemQuickBuildA	O
package	O
of	O
tools	O
for	O
building	O
applications	O
for	O
Series	B-Device
39	I-Device
mainframes	B-Architecture
built	O
around	O
the	O
Data	O
Dictionary	O
System	O
(	O
DDS	O
)	O
.QuerymasterAn	O
interactive	O
command-based	O
query	O
language	O
for	O
IDMS	B-Application
databases	O
and	O
indexed-sequential	O
files	O
,	O
offering	O
a	O
relational	O
view	O
of	O
the	O
underlying	O
data	O
sources	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
PLANThe	O
assembly	B-Language
language	I-Language
for	O
the	O
ICL	B-Device
1900	I-Device
series	I-Device
and	O
short	O
for	O
Programming	O
LAnguage	O
Nineteen-hundredICL	O
1900	B-Device
Series	I-Device
Preservation	O
–	O
Programming	O
Languages	O
–	O
PLANICL	O
Technical	O
Publications	O
–	O
1900	B-Device
Series	I-Device
Training	O
–	O
T2335	O
–	O
PLAN	O
coding	O
–	O
page	O
5	O
or	O
Programming	O
LAnguage	O
of	O
the	O
Nineteen	O
hundred.ICL	O
Technical	O
Publications	O
–	O
1900	B-Device
Series	I-Device
Training	O
–	O
T213	O
–	O
1900	O
Language	O
Linking	O
–	O
page	O
1	O
(	O
5th	O
page	O
of	O
PDF	O
)	O
S3a	O
system	B-Language
programming	I-Language
language	I-Language
derived	O
from	O
ALGOL	B-Language
68	I-Language
,	O
but	O
with	O
data	O
types	O
and	O
operators	O
aligned	O
to	O
those	O
offered	O
by	O
the	O
2900	O
Primitive	O
Level	O
Interface	O
(	O
that	O
is	O
,	O
the	O
order	O
code	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
was	O
used	O
to	O
write	O
the	O
VME/B	B-General_Concept
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
and	O
much	O
of	O
the	O
superstructure	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
compilers	B-Language
and	O
utilities	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
S3	B-Language
was	O
not	O
generally	O
used	O
for	O
application-level	O
programming.SCLSystem	O
Control	O
Language	O
,	O
VME	B-General_Concept
's	O
equivalent	O
of	O
a	O
job	O
control	O
or	O
shell	O
scripting	O
languageALGOL	O
60There	O
were	O
two	O
VME	B-General_Concept
ALGOL	B-Language
60	I-Language
compilers	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
was	O
developed	O
in-house	B-Architecture
in	O
Kidsgrove	O
while	O
the	O
other	O
was	O
ported	O
to	O
VME	B-General_Concept
from	O
the	O
Edinburgh	B-Application
Multiple	I-Application
Access	I-Application
System	I-Application
by	O
its	O
author	O
,	O
Peter	O
Stevens.ALGOL	O
68The	O
VME	B-General_Concept
ALGOL	B-Language
68	I-Language
compiler	B-Language
was	O
written	O
at	B-Operating_System
Oxford	O
University	O
Computing	O
Services	O
and	O
the	O
University	O
of	O
Bath	O
using	O
the	O
Royal	O
Signals	O
and	O
Radar	O
Establishment	O
ALGOL	B-General_Concept
68RS	I-General_Concept
portable	O
front-end.COBOLfor	O
most	O
business	O
applications	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
language	O
for	O
mathematical	O
applications.PascalThe	O
VME	B-General_Concept
Pascal	B-Application
compiler	B-Language
was	O
written	O
at	B-Operating_System
the	O
Computer	O
Science	O
Departments	O
of	O
the	O
Universities	O
of	O
Southampton	O
and	O
Glasgow	O
,	O
and	O
was	O
based	O
on	O
the	O
1900	B-Device
Series	I-Device
compiler	B-Language
written	O
at	B-Operating_System
the	O
Universities	O
of	O
Belfast	O
and	O
Glasgow	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Like	O
1900	O
Pascal	B-Application
,	O
it	O
had	O
a	O
powerful	O
symbolic	O
diagnostics	O
feature	O
inspired	O
by	O
that	O
implemented	O
in	O
ALGOL	B-Language
W	I-Language
by	O
Richard	O
Sites.SFLSystem	O
Function	O
Language	O
–	O
an	O
assembly	B-Language
language	I-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Used	O
to	O
write	O
VME/K	B-General_Concept
and	O
the	O
kernel	O
of	O
2900	O
IDMS	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
SFL	O
was	O
originally	O
named	O
MAPLE	O
,	O
for	O
Macro	O
Assembly	B-Language
Programming	I-Language
Language	I-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
presented	O
the	O
2900	B-Device
Series	I-Device
Primitive	O
Level	O
Interface	O
along	O
with	O
a	O
set	O
of	O
useful	O
macros	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
assembly	B-Language
language	I-Language
programming	O
was	O
positively	O
discouraged	O
by	O
ICL	O
Sales	O
&	O
Marketing	O
,	O
so	O
the	O
tool	O
was	O
renamed	O
to	O
be	O
more	O
in	O
accord	O
with	O
the	O
branding	O
of	O
the	O
2900	B-Device
Series	I-Device
as	O
a	O
high	O
level	O
language	O
architecture	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
SFL	O
was	O
not	O
available	O
to	O
customers	O
as	O
a	O
standard	O
product	O
,	O
though	O
it	O
could	O
be	O
obtained	O
if	O
there	O
were	O
good	O
reasons.CC	O
compilers	B-Language
only	O
became	O
available	O
on	O
VME	B-General_Concept
in	O
the	O
mid-1980s	O
,	O
being	O
needed	O
to	O
port	O
relational	O
database	O
products	O
such	O
as	O
Ingres	B-Application
and	O
Oracle	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
far	O
as	O
possible	O
it	O
was	O
developed	O
from	O
existing	O
hardware	B-Architecture
and	O
software	O
,	O
but	O
configured	O
for	O
an	O
office	O
environment	O
without	O
underfloor	O
cabling	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
hardware	B-Architecture
was	O
based	O
on	O
the	O
2900	O
DFC	O
(	O
Disk	O
File	O
Controller	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
used	O
the	O
MICOS	O
engine	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
2903/4	O
system	O
cabinet	O
housed	O
the	O
MICOS	O
engine	O
,	O
Drico	O
FEDS	O
disk	O
storage	O
and	O
a	O
punched	B-Architecture
card	I-Architecture
reader	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
wing	O
attached	O
at	B-Operating_System
45	O
degrees	O
carried	O
the	O
operator	O
's	O
console	O
which	O
was	O
a	O
visual	O
display	O
unit	O
(	O
VDU	O
)	O
:	O
for	O
1900	O
users	O
who	O
were	O
accustomed	O
to	O
the	O
Westrex	O
teletype	B-Application
as	O
console	O
,	O
this	O
was	O
a	O
major	O
advance	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
printers	O
ran	O
at	B-Operating_System
300	O
or	O
600	O
lines	O
per	O
minute	O
,	O
selected	O
by	O
a	O
hidden	O
link	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
2903	O
used	O
microcode	O
to	O
emulate	O
1900	O
hardware	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
was	O
George	O
1*	O
(	O
a	O
modification	O
of	O
George	B-General_Concept
1S	I-General_Concept
batch	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
)	O
running	O
on	O
top	O
of	O
the	O
UDAS	O
Executive	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
consequence	O
,	O
the	O
1900	O
compilers	B-Language
and	O
utilities	O
ran	O
on	O
the	O
290x	O
range	O
without	O
any	O
changes	O
or	O
recompilation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
some	O
sites	O
a	O
microcode	O
floppy	O
was	O
available	O
that	O
would	O
make	O
the	O
system	O
work	O
as	O
an	O
IBM	B-Application
360	I-Application
running	O
the	O
IBM	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
,	O
although	O
this	O
entailed	O
changing	O
the	O
removable	O
hard	O
drives	O
as	O
the	O
formats	O
were	O
completely	O
different	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
new	O
feature	O
provided	O
on	O
this	O
range	O
was	O
Direct	O
Data	B-General_Concept
Entry	I-General_Concept
,	O
a	O
system	O
with	O
up	O
to	O
eight	O
dedicated	O
VDU	O
data	B-General_Concept
entry	I-General_Concept
stations	O
,	O
with	O
which	O
card	O
image	O
files	O
could	O
be	O
created	O
;	O
these	O
could	O
be	O
assigned	O
to	O
a	O
program	O
's	O
card	O
reader	O
and	O
processed	O
accordingly	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
290x	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
,	O
known	O
as	O
'	O
Executive	O
 '	O
,	O
allowed	O
the	O
machines	O
to	O
be	O
operated	O
'	O
manually	O
 '	O
via	O
a	O
video	O
console	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
GEORGE1*	O
ran	O
on	O
top	O
of	O
Executive	O
to	O
control	O
batch	O
processes	O
by	O
means	O
of	O
JCL	O
(	O
Job	O
Control	O
Language	O
)	O
,	O
which	O
was	O
based	O
very	O
closely	O
upon	O
the	O
macro	O
language	O
of	O
the	O
1900	O
GEORGE1S	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
TME	O
was	O
the	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
on	O
the	O
ME29	O
and	O
required	O
CL	O
(	O
Control	O
Language	O
)	O
to	O
run	O
jobs	O
–	O
'	O
manual	O
 '	O
operation	O
being	O
discouraged	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Practically	O
all	O
the	B-Application
software	I-Application
packages	O
available	O
on	O
the	O
1900	O
range	O
ran	O
on	O
the	O
290x	O
and	O
ME29	O
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
TME	O
came	O
bundled	O
with	O
a	O
hierarchical	B-General_Concept
database	I-General_Concept
management	I-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
called	O
RAPID	O
(	O
Record	O
Access	O
Program	O
Independent	O
of	O
Data	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
was	O
built	O
around	O
1900	O
IDMS	B-Application
,	O
and	O
consisted	O
of	O
a	O
set	O
of	O
user	O
interfaces	O
which	O
provided	O
a	O
"	O
user	O
friendly	O
"	O
graphical	O
database	B-Application
schema	I-Application
design	O
and	O
configuration	O
environment	O
,	O
and	O
an	O
RML	O
COBOL-based	O
programming	O
environment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Everything	O
was	O
compiled	B-Language
into	O
the	O
equivalent	O
1900	O
IDMS	B-Application
objects	O
for	O
use	O
at	B-Operating_System
run	O
time	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
During	O
the	O
mid-1980s	O
,	O
separate	O
Office	O
Systems	O
business	O
units	O
had	O
produced	O
a	O
disparate	O
range	O
of	O
products	O
including	O
IBM-compatible	O
PCs	B-Device
such	O
as	O
the	O
PWS	O
(	O
an	O
AT	B-Operating_System
clone	O
)	O
,	O
small	O
servers	O
branded	O
DRS	O
,	O
and	O
a	O
range	O
of	O
larger	O
Unix	O
servers	O
sold	O
under	O
the	O
Clan	O
name	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1994	O
the	O
DRS	O
range	O
was	O
superseded	O
by	O
the	O
SuperServer	O
and	O
TeamServer	O
ranges	O
of	O
SPARC	O
and	O
Intel-based	O
machines	O
,	O
running	O
Unix	O
or	O
Microsoft	O
operating	B-General_Concept
systems	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
early	O
1970s	O
,	O
ICL	O
signed	O
an	O
OEM	O
agreement	O
with	O
the	O
Canadian	O
company	O
,	O
Consolidated	O
Computers	O
Ltd	O
(	O
later	O
Consolidated	O
Computer	O
Inc	O
.	O
)	O
to	O
distribute	O
CCL	O
's	O
key-to-disk	O
data	B-General_Concept
entry	I-General_Concept
product	O
,	O
Key-Edit	O
,	O
in	O
the	O
British	O
Commonwealth	O
of	O
countries	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
in	O
western	O
and	O
eastern	O
Europe	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
mid-1980s	O
a	O
version	O
of	O
the	O
Key	O
Edit	O
59	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
was	O
ported	O
(	O
in	O
emulation	O
mode	O
)	O
to	O
the	O
DRS	O
20	O
series	O
and	O
marketed	O
as	O
Data	B-General_Concept
Entry	I-General_Concept
20	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Dataskil	O
software	B-Application
products	I-Application
included	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
ICL	B-Device
1900	I-Device
Filan	O
manual	O
(	O
1st	O
edition	O
January	O
1973	O
)	O
describes	O
Filan	O
as	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
there	O
was	O
only	O
a	O
small	O
user	O
community	O
,	O
ICL	O
decided	O
not	O
to	O
convert	O
the	B-Application
software	I-Application
to	O
run	O
on	O
its	O
2900	O
range	O
of	O
computers	O
in	O
the	O
1980s	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
was	O
a	O
joint	O
venture	O
of	O
International	O
Computer	B-Architecture
Services	I-Architecture
Ltd	O
(	O
ICSL	O
)	O
,	O
a	O
division	O
of	O
ICL	O
,	O
and	O
Barclays	O
Bank	O
,	O
that	O
provided	O
computer	B-Architecture
services	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
early	O
days	O
of	O
computing	O
many	O
organizations	O
avoided	O
the	O
capital	O
costs	O
of	O
purchasing	O
their	O
own	O
equipment	O
and	O
the	O
recruitment	O
of	O
technical	O
specialists	O
by	O
putting	O
their	O
work	O
out	O
to	O
service	O
companies	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
BARIC	O
,	O
which	O
were	O
known	O
as	O
computer	B-General_Concept
bureaux	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
BARIC	O
also	O
ran	O
special	O
groups	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
Advanced	O
Videotex	B-Operating_System
team	O
,	O
which	O
investigated	O
how	O
new	O
technologies	O
such	O
as	O
Prestel	B-General_Concept
could	O
be	O
leveraged	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
company	O
operated	O
two	O
ICL	B-Device
1900	I-Device
mainframes	B-Architecture
(	O
1904E	O
and	O
1905S	O
,	O
in	O
manual	O
and	O
GEORGE	B-General_Concept
II	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
modes	O
)	O
from	O
its	O
head	O
office	O
in	O
Newman	O
Street	O
,	O
London	O
W1	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Queensway	O
site	O
was	O
above	O
Whiteleys	O
department	O
store	O
,	O
and	O
had	O
been	O
used	O
in	O
the	O
1950s	O
and	O
1960s	O
by	O
the	O
LEO	B-Device
arm	O
of	O
food	O
company	O
J	O
.	O
Lyons	O
to	O
run	O
data	O
processing	O
and	O
an	O
early	O
bureau	O
service	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
later	O
years	O
ICIM	O
,	O
from	O
its	O
offices	O
in	O
Pune	O
,	O
started	O
to	O
establish	O
a	O
presence	O
in	O
the	O
market	O
for	O
offshore	O
software	O
development	O
and	O
eventually	O
outsourcing	B-Architecture
of	O
the	O
operation	O
of	O
computer	B-Architecture
services	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
DESC	O
Ltd	O
(	O
subsequently	O
ICL	O
DESC	O
Ltd	O
.	O
)	O
was	O
a	O
subsidiary	O
focused	O
on	O
defence	O
systems	O
spun	O
out	O
from	O
ICL	O
at	B-Operating_System
the	O
time	O
of	O
the	O
Fujitsu	O
takeover	O
,	O
to	O
avoid	O
concerns	O
over	O
defence	O
systems	O
ownership	O
by	O
the	O
Japanese	O
firm	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Supported	O
platforms	O
included	O
the	O
DRS-6000	O
and	O
DRS-3000	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
product	O
was	O
written	O
in	O
COBOL	B-Application
with	O
some	O
'	O
glue	O
 '	O
written	O
in	O
C	B-Language
.	O
The	O
international	O
team	O
was	O
based	O
in	O
Greenville	O
SC	O
,	O
US	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Customers	O
of	O
iBANK	O
Systems	O
included	O
Moscow	O
Savings	O
Bank	O
(	O
Russia	O
)	O
,	O
Suprimex	O
(	O
Russia	O
)	O
,	O
Chelindbank	O
(	O
Russia	O
,	O
project	O
cancelled	O
at	B-Operating_System
the	O
try-test	O
phase	O
)	O
,	O
Mineral	O
Bank	O
(	O
Bulgaria	O
)	O
,	O
Romanian	O
Bank	O
for	O
Development	O
(	O
Romania	O
)	O
,	O
PTC	O
(	O
Zimbabwe	O
)	O
,	O
People	O
's	O
Own	O
Savings	O
Bank	O
(	O
Zimbabwe	O
)	O
,	O
Mutual	O
Bank	O
of	O
the	O
Caribbean	O
(	O
Barbados	O
)	O
,	O
National	O
Commercial	O
Bank	O
(	O
Jamaica	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
Caisse	O
Populaire	O
(	O
Canada	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Singer	O
group	O
,	O
a	O
holding	O
company	O
which	O
had	O
diversified	O
by	O
adding	O
many	O
divisions	O
,	O
the	O
most	O
well-known	O
of	O
which	O
was	O
its	O
early	O
roots	O
in	O
sewing	O
machines	O
,	O
and	O
others	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
Business	O
Machine	O
division	O
which	O
was	O
acquired	O
by	O
purchasing	O
Friden	O
,	O
a	O
San	O
Leandro	O
computer	B-General_Concept
company	I-General_Concept
,	O
whose	O
flagship	O
product	O
was	O
the	O
System	B-Device
Ten	I-Device
,	O
a	O
small	O
business	O
minicomputer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ICL	O
subsequently	O
developed	O
the	O
System	B-Device
Ten	I-Device
into	O
the	O
System	B-Device
25	I-Device
,	O
and	O
used	O
the	O
product	O
to	O
spearhead	O
the	O
growth	O
of	O
its	O
Retail	O
Systems	O
business	O
during	O
the	O
1980s	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Robb	O
Wilmot	O
,	O
who	O
had	O
arrived	O
as	O
managing	O
director	O
in	O
1981	O
(	O
at	B-Operating_System
the	O
age	O
of	O
36	O
)	O
remained	O
,	O
along	O
with	O
Peter	O
Bonfield	O
as	O
marketing	O
director	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
takeover	O
caused	O
losses	O
at	B-Operating_System
STC	O
,	O
leading	O
in	O
1985	O
to	O
a	O
rights	O
issue	O
and	O
Corfield	O
's	O
replacement	O
by	O
Lord	O
Keith	O
as	O
STC	O
chairman	O
,	O
with	O
Arthur	O
Walsh	O
as	O
chief	O
executive	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
At	B-Operating_System
the	O
time	O
this	O
was	O
the	O
second	O
largest	O
supplier	O
in	O
the	O
US	O
retail	O
market	O
,	O
and	O
greatly	O
expanded	O
ICL	O
's	O
US	O
presence	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Nokia	O
Data	O
was	O
itself	O
the	O
result	O
of	O
Nokia	O
's	O
mid-1980s	O
acquisition	O
of	O
Ericsson	O
Information	O
Systems	O
,	O
whose	O
origins	O
lay	O
in	O
the	O
purchase	O
by	O
Ericsson	O
of	O
the	O
computer	B-General_Concept
business	I-General_Concept
of	O
Saab	O
,	O
known	O
as	O
Datasaab	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ICL	O
's	O
acquisition	O
(	O
at	B-Operating_System
a	O
price	O
of	O
around	O
£250m	O
)	O
added	O
9,500	O
employees	O
to	O
the	O
company	O
(	O
7,000	O
of	O
them	O
in	O
Finland	O
and	O
Sweden	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
brought	O
with	O
it	O
a	O
PC	B-Device
manufacturing	O
capability	O
,	O
a	O
suite	O
of	O
desktop	O
software	B-Application
products	I-Application
,	O
and	O
more	O
importantly	O
a	O
strong	O
presence	O
in	O
the	O
Nordic	O
market	O
and	O
an	O
awareness	O
of	O
the	O
high-volume	O
end	O
of	O
the	O
IT	O
market	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
July	O
,	O
1991	O
ICL	O
acquired	O
more	O
than	O
half	O
of	O
the	O
Russian	O
company	O
KME-CS	O
(	O
Kazan	O
Manufacturing	O
Enterprise	O
of	O
Computer	O
Systems	O
,	O
Kazan	O
,	O
Tatarstan	O
,	O
Russia	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ICL	O
's	O
relationship	O
with	O
Fujitsu	O
started	O
in	O
1981	O
,	O
when	O
ICL	O
needed	O
a	O
cheaper	O
source	O
of	O
technology	O
to	O
develop	O
lower-end	O
machines	O
in	O
the	O
2900	O
range	O
to	O
compete	O
with	O
the	O
IBM	B-Device
4300	I-Device
series	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
At	B-Operating_System
this	O
stage	O
ICL	O
was	O
developing	O
its	O
own	O
LSI	O
technology	O
for	O
use	O
in	O
the	O
higher-end	O
machines	O
,	O
designed	O
as	O
a	O
successor	O
to	O
the	O
highly	O
successful	O
2966	O
processor	O
(	O
known	O
internally	O
as	O
S3	B-Language
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
He	O
cancelled	O
in-house	B-Architecture
LSI	O
technology	O
development	O
,	O
and	O
negotiated	O
an	O
agreement	O
that	O
gave	O
access	O
to	O
Fujitsu	O
's	O
LSI	O
and	O
packaging	O
technologies	O
,	O
which	O
,	O
when	O
combined	O
with	O
ICL	O
's	O
in-house	B-Architecture
CAD	O
capability	O
,	O
enabled	O
ICL	O
to	O
design	O
and	O
manufacture	O
the	O
DM1	O
and	O
Estriel	O
machines	O
,	O
later	O
marketed	O
profitably	O
as	O
Series	B-Device
39	I-Device
level	O
30	O
and	O
80	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
Fujitsu	O
's	O
involvement	O
with	O
ICL	O
at	B-Operating_System
both	O
the	O
financial	O
and	O
the	O
technical	O
level	O
steadily	O
increased	O
over	O
the	O
subsequent	O
two	O
decades	O
,	O
and	O
in	O
1990	O
Fujitsu	O
acquired	O
80%	O
of	O
ICL	O
plc	O
from	O
its	O
parent	O
STC	O
plc	O
,	O
paying	O
US	O
$1.29	O
billion	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Following	O
the	O
acquisition	O
of	O
Nokia	O
Data	O
in	O
1991	O
,	O
personal	B-Device
computers	I-Device
and	O
servers	O
were	O
marketed	O
under	O
the	O
ICL	O
brand	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
joint	O
venture	O
absorbed	O
all	O
ICL	O
's	O
hardware	B-Architecture
business	O
with	O
the	O
exception	O
of	O
VME	B-General_Concept
mainframes	B-Architecture
,	O
and	O
all	O
the	O
business	O
of	O
Siemens	O
Nixdorf	O
with	O
the	O
exception	O
of	O
its	O
banking	O
and	O
retail	O
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
PC	B-Device
Interworks	O
was	O
incorporated	O
in	O
October	O
1995	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
was	O
created	O
as	O
a	O
sales	O
company	O
,	O
selling	O
personal	B-Device
computer	I-Device
and	O
other	O
IT	O
equipment	O
to	O
the	O
employees	O
of	O
large	O
organisations	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
PC	B-Device
Interworks	O
was	O
subsequently	O
absorbed	O
by	O
International	O
Computer	O
Logistics	O
Limited	O
.	O
</s>
