<s>
A	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
is	O
a	O
battery	O
technology	O
that	O
uses	O
solid	O
electrodes	O
and	O
a	O
solid	B-Algorithm
electrolyte	I-Algorithm
,	O
instead	O
of	O
the	O
liquid	O
or	O
polymer	B-Language
gel	O
electrolytes	O
found	O
in	O
lithium-ion	O
or	O
lithium	B-Language
polymer	B-Language
batteries	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Developments	O
in	O
the	O
late	O
20th	O
and	O
early	O
21st	O
century	O
have	O
caused	O
renewed	O
interest	O
in	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
technologies	O
,	O
especially	O
in	O
the	O
context	O
of	O
electric	O
vehicles	O
,	O
starting	O
in	O
the	O
2010s	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Solid-state	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
can	O
provide	O
potential	O
solutions	O
for	O
many	O
problems	O
of	O
liquid	O
Li-ion	O
batteries	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
flammability	O
,	O
limited	O
voltage	O
,	O
unstable	O
solid-electrolyte	O
interphase	O
formation	O
,	O
poor	O
cycling	O
performance	O
and	O
strength	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Materials	O
proposed	O
for	O
use	O
as	O
solid	O
electrolytes	O
in	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
include	O
ceramics	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
oxides	O
,	O
sulfides	O
,	O
phosphates	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
solid	O
polymers	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Solid-state	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
have	O
found	O
use	O
in	O
pacemakers	B-Device
,	O
RFID	B-Application
and	O
wearable	B-Operating_System
devices	I-Operating_System
.	O
</s>
<s>
Challenges	O
to	O
widespread	O
adoption	O
include	O
energy	O
and	O
power	O
density	O
,	O
durability	B-General_Concept
,	O
material	O
costs	O
,	O
sensitivity	O
and	O
stability	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
excitement	O
for	O
solid-state	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
manifested	O
in	O
the	O
discovery	O
of	O
new	O
systems	O
in	O
both	O
organics	O
,	O
i.e.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
new	O
class	O
of	O
solid-state	B-Algorithm
electrolyte	I-Algorithm
developed	O
by	O
the	O
Oak	O
Ridge	O
National	O
Laboratory	O
,	O
Lithium	B-Language
phosphorus	O
oxynitride	O
(	O
LiPON	O
)	O
,	O
emerged	O
in	O
the	O
1990s	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
LiPON	O
was	O
successfully	O
used	O
to	O
make	O
thin	O
film	O
lithium-ion	O
batteries	O
,	O
such	O
applications	O
were	O
limited	O
due	O
to	O
the	O
cost	O
associated	O
with	O
deposition	O
of	O
the	O
thin-film	O
electrolyte	O
,	O
along	O
with	O
the	O
small	O
capacities	O
that	O
could	O
be	O
accessed	O
using	O
the	O
thin	O
film	O
format	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
technology	O
advanced	O
into	O
the	O
new	O
millennium	O
,	O
researchers	O
and	O
companies	O
in	O
the	O
automotive	O
and	O
transportation	O
industries	O
experienced	O
revitalized	O
interest	O
in	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
technologies	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
car	O
was	O
meant	O
to	O
showcase	O
the	O
company	O
's	O
diversity	O
of	O
electric-powered	O
cells	O
in	O
the	O
application	O
,	O
and	O
featured	O
a	O
30kWh	O
lithium	B-Language
metal	I-Language
polymer	B-Language
(	O
LMP	O
)	O
battery	O
with	O
a	O
polymeric	O
electrolyte	O
,	O
created	O
by	O
dissolving	O
lithium	B-Language
salt	O
in	O
a	O
co-polymer	O
(	O
polyoxyethylene	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2012	O
,	O
Toyota	O
soon	O
followed	O
suit	O
and	O
began	O
conducting	O
experimental	O
research	O
into	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
for	O
applications	O
in	O
the	O
automotive	O
industry	O
in	O
order	O
to	O
remain	O
competitive	O
in	O
the	O
EV	O
market	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2013	O
,	O
researchers	O
at	O
the	O
University	O
of	O
Colorado	O
Boulder	O
announced	O
the	O
development	O
of	O
a	O
solid-state	O
lithium	B-Language
battery	O
,	O
with	O
a	O
solid	O
composite	O
cathode	O
based	O
on	O
an	O
iron-sulfur	O
chemistry	O
,	O
that	O
promised	O
higher	O
energy	O
capacity	O
compared	O
to	O
already-existing	O
SSBs	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2017	O
,	O
John	O
Goodenough	O
,	O
the	O
co-inventor	O
of	O
Li-ion	O
batteries	O
,	O
unveiled	O
a	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
,	O
using	O
a	O
glass	B-Algorithm
electrolyte	O
and	O
an	O
alkali-metal	O
anode	O
consisting	O
of	O
lithium	B-Language
,	O
sodium	O
or	O
potassium	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Later	O
that	O
year	O
,	O
Toyota	O
announced	O
the	O
deepening	O
of	O
its	O
decades-long	O
partnership	O
with	O
Panasonic	O
,	O
including	O
a	O
collaboration	O
on	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
other	O
car	O
makers	O
independently	O
developing	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
technologies	O
quickly	O
joined	O
a	O
growing	O
list	O
that	O
includes	O
BMW	O
,	O
Honda	O
,	O
Hyundai	O
Motor	O
Company	O
and	O
Nissan	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Other	O
automotive-related	O
companies	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
Spark	O
plug	O
maker	O
NGK	O
,	O
have	O
retrofitted	O
their	O
business	O
expertise	O
and	O
models	O
to	O
cater	O
to	O
evolving	O
demand	O
for	O
ceramic-based	O
solid	B-Architecture
state	I-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
,	O
in	O
the	O
face	O
of	O
perceived	O
obsolescence	O
of	O
the	O
conventional	O
fossil-fuel	O
paradigm	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Major	O
developments	O
continued	O
to	O
unfold	O
into	O
2018	O
,	O
when	O
Solid	O
Power	O
,	O
spun	O
off	O
from	O
the	O
University	O
of	O
Colorado	O
Boulder	O
research	O
team	O
,	O
received	O
$20	O
million	O
in	O
funding	O
from	O
Samsung	B-Application
and	O
Hyundai	O
to	O
establish	O
a	O
small	O
manufacturing	O
line	O
that	O
could	O
produce	O
copies	O
of	O
its	O
all-solid-state	O
,	O
rechargeable	O
lithium-metal	O
battery	O
prototype	O
,	O
with	O
a	O
predicted	O
10	O
megawatt	O
hours	O
of	O
capacity	O
per	O
year	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
QuantumScape	O
,	O
another	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
startup	O
that	O
spun	O
out	O
of	O
a	O
collegiate	O
research	O
group	O
(	O
in	O
this	O
case	O
,	O
Stanford	O
University	O
)	O
drew	O
attention	O
that	O
same	O
year	O
,	O
when	O
Volkswagen	O
announced	O
a	O
$100	O
million	O
investment	O
into	O
the	O
team	O
's	O
research	O
,	O
becoming	O
the	O
largest	O
stakeholder	O
,	O
joined	O
by	O
investor	O
Bill	O
Gates	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
With	O
the	O
goal	O
to	O
establish	O
a	O
joint	O
production	O
project	O
for	O
mass	O
production	O
of	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
,	O
Volkswagen	O
endowed	O
QuantumScape	O
with	O
an	O
additional	O
$200	O
million	O
in	O
June	O
2020	O
,	O
and	O
QuantumScape	O
IPO	O
'd	O
on	O
the	O
NYSE	O
on	O
November	O
29	O
,	O
2020	O
,	O
as	O
part	O
of	O
a	O
merger	O
with	O
Kensington	O
Capital	O
Acquisition	O
,	O
to	O
raise	O
additional	O
equity	O
capital	O
for	O
the	O
project	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Qing	O
Tao	O
started	O
the	O
first	O
Chinese	O
production	O
line	O
of	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
in	O
2018	O
as	O
well	O
,	O
with	O
the	O
initial	O
intention	O
of	O
supplying	O
SSBs	O
for	O
“	O
special	O
equipment	O
and	O
high-end	O
digital	O
products	O
”	O
;	O
however	O
,	O
the	O
company	O
has	O
spoken	O
with	O
several	O
car	O
manufacturers	O
with	O
the	O
intent	O
to	O
potentially	O
expand	O
into	O
the	O
automotive	O
space	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lithium-Ion	O
cells	O
used	O
in	O
electric	O
vehicles	O
typically	O
offer	O
2,000	O
to	O
5,000	O
mAh	O
at	O
similar	O
voltage	O
:	O
an	O
EV	O
would	O
need	O
at	O
least	O
100	O
times	O
as	O
many	O
of	O
the	O
Murata	O
cells	O
to	O
provide	O
equivalent	O
power	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
September	O
2021	O
,	O
Toyota	O
announced	O
their	O
plan	O
to	O
use	O
a	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
in	O
some	O
future	O
car	O
models	O
,	O
starting	O
with	O
hybrid	O
models	O
in	O
2025	O
,	O
due	O
to	O
the	O
cost	O
and	O
lower	O
power	O
requirements	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
money	O
invested	O
by	O
Mercedes-Benz	O
will	O
be	O
used	O
for	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
development	O
and	O
production	O
preparations	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
February	O
2022	O
,	O
Alpine	O
4	O
Holdings	O
subsidiaries	O
Elecjet	O
and	O
Vayu	O
Aerospace	O
successfully	O
installed	O
Solid	B-Architecture
State	I-Architecture
Batteries	I-Architecture
in	O
their	O
Drones	O
leading	O
up	O
to	O
a	O
sale	O
to	O
a	O
Government	O
Contractor	O
later	O
in	O
the	O
year	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Solid-state	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
(	O
SSEs	O
)	O
candidate	O
materials	O
include	O
ceramics	O
such	O
as	O
lithium	B-Language
orthosilicate	O
,	O
glass	B-Algorithm
,	O
sulfides	O
and	O
RbAg4I5	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Chloride	O
superionic	O
conductors	O
have	O
been	O
proposed	O
as	O
another	O
promising	O
solid	B-Algorithm
electrolyte	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
present	O
chloride	O
solid	B-Algorithm
electrolyte	I-Algorithm
systems	O
can	O
be	O
divided	O
into	O
two	O
types	O
:	O
Li3MCl6	O
and	O
Li2M2/3Cl4	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
cathodes	O
are	O
lithium	B-Language
based	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
promising	O
cathode	O
material	O
is	O
Li-S	B-Algorithm
,	O
which	O
(	O
as	O
part	O
of	O
a	O
solid	O
lithium	B-Language
anode/Li2S	O
cell	O
)	O
has	O
a	O
theoretical	O
specific	O
capacity	O
of	O
1670	O
mAh	O
g−1	O
,	O
"	O
ten	O
times	O
larger	O
than	O
the	O
effective	O
value	O
of	O
LiCoO2	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Recently	O
,	O
a	O
ceramic	O
textile	O
was	O
developed	O
that	O
showed	O
promise	O
in	O
a	O
Li-S	B-Algorithm
solid	B-Architecture
state	I-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Li-O2	B-Architecture
also	O
have	O
high	O
theoretical	O
capacity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
using	O
μSi	O
anode( purity	O
of	O
99.9	O
wt	O
%	O
)	O
,	O
solid	B-Algorithm
state	I-Algorithm
electrolyte	I-Algorithm
(	O
SSE	O
)	O
and	O
lithium	B-Language
nickel	O
cobalt	O
manganese	O
oxide	O
(	O
NCM811	O
)	O
cathode	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
kind	O
of	O
solid	B-Architecture
state	I-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
demonstrated	O
a	O
high	O
current	O
density	O
up	O
to	O
5	O
mA	O
cm−2	O
,	O
a	O
wide	O
range	O
of	O
working	O
temperature	O
(	O
-20	O
°C	O
and	O
80°C	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
areal	O
capacity	O
(	O
for	O
the	O
anode	O
)	O
of	O
up	O
to	O
11	O
mAh	O
cm−2	O
(	O
2890	O
mAh/g	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
At	O
the	O
same	O
time	O
,	O
after	O
500	O
cycles	O
under	O
5	O
mA	O
cm−2	O
,	O
the	O
batteries	O
still	O
provide	O
80%	O
of	O
capacity	O
retention	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
the	O
best	O
performance	O
of	O
μSi	O
all	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
reported	O
so	O
far	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
addition	O
chloride	O
solid	B-Algorithm
electrolyte	I-Algorithm
’s	O
exceptionally	O
high	O
oxidation	O
stability	O
and	O
high	O
ductility	O
add	O
to	O
its	O
performance	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
particular	O
a	O
lithium	B-Language
mixed-metal	O
chloride	O
family	O
of	O
solid	O
electrolytes	O
,	O
Li2InxSc0.666-xCl4	O
developed	O
by	O
Zhou	O
et	O
tal.	O
,	O
show	O
high	O
ionic	O
conductivity	O
(	O
2.0	O
mS	O
cm−1	O
)	O
over	O
a	O
wide	O
range	O
of	O
composition	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
is	O
owing	O
to	O
the	O
chloride	O
solid	B-Algorithm
electrolyte	I-Algorithm
being	O
able	O
to	O
be	O
used	O
in	O
conjunction	O
with	O
bare	O
cathode	O
active	O
materials	O
as	O
opposed	O
to	O
coated	O
cathode	O
active	O
materials	O
and	O
its	O
low	O
electronic	O
conductivity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Alternative	O
cheaper	O
chloride	O
solid	B-Algorithm
electrolyte	I-Algorithm
compositions	O
with	O
lower	O
,	O
but	O
still	O
impressive	O
,	O
ionic	O
conductivity	O
can	O
be	O
found	O
with	O
an	O
Li2ZrCl6	O
solid	B-Algorithm
electrolyte	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
particular	O
chloride	O
solid	B-Algorithm
electrolyte	I-Algorithm
maintains	O
a	O
high	O
room	O
temperature	O
ionic	O
conductivity	O
(	O
0.81	O
mS	O
cm−1	O
)	O
,	O
deformability	O
,	O
and	O
has	O
a	O
high	O
humidity	O
tolerance	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Solid-state	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
are	O
potentially	O
useful	O
in	O
pacemakers	B-Device
,	O
RFIDs	B-Application
,	O
wearable	B-Operating_System
devices	I-Operating_System
,	O
and	O
electric	O
vehicles	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Hybrid	O
and	O
plug-in	O
electric	O
cars	O
use	O
a	O
variety	O
of	O
battery	O
technologies	O
,	O
including	O
Li-ion	O
,	O
nickel	B-Device
–	I-Device
metal	I-Device
hydride	I-Device
(	O
NiMH	B-Device
)	O
,	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
,	O
and	O
electric	O
double-layer	O
capacitor	O
(	O
or	O
ultracapacitor	O
)	O
,	O
with	O
Li-ion	O
dominating	O
the	O
market	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
August	O
2020	O
,	O
Toyota	O
started	O
road	O
testing	O
of	O
their	O
prototype	O
vehicle	O
,	O
LQ	O
Concept	O
,	O
equipped	O
with	O
a	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
September	O
2021	O
,	O
Toyota	O
unveiled	O
its	O
strategy	O
on	O
battery	O
development	O
and	O
supply	O
,	O
in	O
which	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
is	O
to	O
be	O
adopted	O
first	O
in	O
their	O
hybrid	O
electric	O
vehicles	O
to	O
utilize	O
its	O
characteristics	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
characteristics	O
of	O
high	O
energy	O
density	O
and	O
keeping	O
high	O
performance	O
even	O
in	O
harsh	O
environments	O
are	O
expected	O
in	O
realization	O
of	O
new	O
wearable	B-Operating_System
devices	I-Operating_System
that	O
are	O
smaller	O
and	O
more	O
reliable	O
than	O
ever	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
March	O
2021	O
,	O
industrial	O
manufacturer	O
Hitachi	O
Zosen	O
Corporation	O
announced	O
a	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
they	O
claimed	O
has	O
one	O
of	O
the	O
highest	O
capacities	O
in	O
the	O
industry	O
and	O
has	O
a	O
wider	O
operating	O
temperature	O
range	O
,	O
potentially	O
suitable	O
for	O
harsh	O
environments	O
like	O
space	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
test	O
mission	O
was	O
launched	O
in	O
February	O
2022	O
,	O
and	O
in	O
August	O
,	O
Japan	O
Aerospace	O
Exploration	O
Agency	O
(	O
JAXA	O
)	O
announced	O
the	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
had	O
properly	O
operated	O
in	O
space	O
,	O
powering	O
camera	O
equipment	O
in	O
the	O
Japanese	O
Experiment	O
Module	O
Kibō	O
on	O
the	O
International	O
Space	O
Station	O
(	O
ISS	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Being	O
lighter	O
weight	O
and	O
more	O
powerful	O
than	O
traditional	O
lithium	B-Language
ion	O
batteries	O
it	O
is	O
resonable	O
that	O
Drones	O
would	O
benefit	O
from	O
Solid	B-Architecture
State	I-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Thin-film	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
are	O
expensive	O
to	O
make	O
and	O
employ	O
manufacturing	O
processes	O
thought	O
to	O
be	O
difficult	O
to	O
scale	O
,	O
requiring	O
expensive	O
vacuum	O
deposition	O
equipment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
a	O
result	O
,	O
costs	O
for	O
thin-film	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
become	O
prohibitive	O
in	O
consumer-based	O
applications	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
was	O
estimated	O
in	O
2012	O
that	O
,	O
based	O
on	O
then-current	O
technology	O
,	O
a	O
20	O
Ah	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
cell	O
would	O
cost	O
US$100	O
,	O
000	O
,	O
and	O
a	O
high-range	O
electric	O
car	O
would	O
require	O
between	O
800	O
and	O
1,000	O
of	O
such	O
cells	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Likewise	O
,	O
cost	O
has	O
impeded	O
the	O
adoption	O
of	O
thin	O
film	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
in	O
other	O
areas	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
smartphones	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Solid-state	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
historically	O
have	O
had	O
poor	O
performance	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Solid-state	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
with	O
ceramic	O
electrolytes	O
require	O
high	O
pressure	O
to	O
maintain	O
contact	O
with	O
the	O
electrodes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Solid-state	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
with	O
ceramic	O
separators	O
may	O
break	O
from	O
mechanical	O
stress	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
November	O
2022	O
,	O
Japanese	O
research	O
group	O
,	O
consisting	O
of	O
Kyoto	O
University	O
,	O
Tottori	O
University	O
and	O
Sumitomo	O
Chemical	O
,	O
announced	O
that	O
they	O
have	O
managed	O
to	O
operate	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
stably	O
without	O
applying	O
pressure	O
with	O
230Wh/kg	O
capacity	O
by	O
using	O
copolymerized	O
new	O
materials	O
for	O
electrolyte	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
High	O
interfacial	O
resistance	O
between	O
a	O
cathode	O
and	O
solid	B-Algorithm
electrolyte	I-Algorithm
has	O
been	O
a	O
long-standing	O
problem	O
for	O
all-solid-state	O
batteries	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
interfacial	O
instability	O
of	O
the	O
electrode-electrolyte	O
has	O
always	O
been	O
a	O
serious	O
problem	O
in	O
solid	B-Architecture
state	I-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
After	O
solid	B-Algorithm
state	I-Algorithm
electrolyte	I-Algorithm
contacts	O
with	O
electrode	O
,	O
the	O
chemical	O
and/or	O
electrochemical	O
side	O
reactions	O
at	O
the	O
interface	O
usually	O
produce	O
a	O
passivated	O
interface	O
,	O
which	O
impedes	O
the	O
diffusion	O
of	O
Li+	O
across	O
the	O
electrode-SSE	O
interface	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Solid	O
lithium	B-Language
(	O
Li	O
)	O
metal	O
anodes	O
in	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
are	O
replacement	O
candidates	O
in	O
lithium-ion	O
batteries	O
for	O
higher	O
energy	O
densities	O
,	O
safety	O
,	O
and	O
faster	O
recharging	O
times	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Such	O
anodes	O
tend	O
to	O
suffer	O
from	O
the	O
formation	O
and	O
the	O
growth	O
of	O
Li	O
dendrites	O
,	O
non-uniform	O
metal	O
growths	O
which	O
penetrate	O
the	O
electrolyte	O
lead	O
to	O
electrical	O
short	B-Application
circuits	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
these	O
systems	O
,	O
dendrites	O
sometimes	O
grow	O
as	O
a	O
result	O
of	O
micro-crack	O
extension	O
due	O
to	O
the	O
presence	O
of	O
plating-induced	O
pressure	O
at	O
the	O
sodium	O
/	O
solid	B-Algorithm
electrolyte	I-Algorithm
interface	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
dendrite	O
growth	O
may	O
also	O
occur	O
due	O
to	O
chemical	O
degradation	O
of	O
the	O
solid	B-Algorithm
electrolyte	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
Li-ion	O
solid	O
electrolytes	O
stable	O
to	O
Li	O
metal	O
,	O
dendrites	O
propagate	O
primarily	O
due	O
to	O
pressure	O
build	O
up	O
at	O
the	O
electrode	O
/	O
solid	B-Algorithm
electrolyte	I-Algorithm
interface	O
,	O
leading	O
to	O
crack	O
extension	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Dendrite	O
growth	O
in	O
solid-state	O
Li-ion	O
cells	O
can	O
be	O
mitigated	O
by	O
operating	O
the	O
cells	O
at	O
elevated	O
temperature	O
,	O
or	O
by	O
using	O
residual	O
stresses	O
to	O
fracture	O
toughen	O
electrolytes	O
,	O
thereby	O
deflecting	O
dendrites	O
and	O
delaying	O
dendrite	O
induced	O
short-circuiting	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Aluminum-containing	O
electronic	O
rectifying	O
interphases	O
between	O
the	O
solid-state	B-Algorithm
electrolyte	I-Algorithm
and	O
the	O
lithium	B-Language
metal	I-Language
anode	O
have	O
also	O
been	O
shown	O
to	O
be	O
effective	O
in	O
preventing	O
dendrite	O
growth	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
common	O
failure	O
mechanism	O
in	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
is	O
mechanical	O
failure	O
through	O
volume	O
changes	O
in	O
the	O
anode	O
and	O
cathode	O
during	O
charge	B-Application
and	I-Application
discharge	I-Application
due	O
to	O
the	O
addition	O
and	O
removal	O
of	O
Li-ions	O
from	O
the	O
host	O
structures	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Ideally	O
a	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
would	O
use	O
a	O
pure	O
lithium	B-Language
metal	I-Language
anode	O
due	O
to	O
its	O
high	O
energy	O
capacity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
lithium	B-Language
undergoes	O
a	O
large	O
increase	O
of	O
volume	O
during	O
charge	O
at	O
around	O
5µm	O
per	O
1	O
mAh/cm2	O
of	O
plated	O
Li	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
electrolytes	O
with	O
a	O
porous	O
microstructure	O
,	O
this	O
expansion	O
leads	O
to	O
an	O
increase	O
in	O
pressure	O
which	O
can	O
lead	O
to	O
creep	O
of	O
Li	O
metal	O
through	O
the	O
electrolyte	O
pores	O
and	O
short	B-Application
of	O
the	O
cell	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lithium	B-Language
metal	I-Language
has	O
a	O
relatively	O
low	O
melting	O
point	O
of	O
453K	O
and	O
a	O
low	O
activation	O
energy	O
for	O
self-diffusion	O
of	O
50	O
kJ/mol	O
,	O
indicating	O
its	O
high	O
propensity	O
to	O
significantly	O
creep	O
at	O
room	O
temperature	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
has	O
been	O
shown	O
that	O
at	O
room	O
temperature	O
lithium	B-Language
undergoes	O
power-law	O
creep	O
where	O
the	O
temperature	O
is	O
high	O
enough	O
relative	O
to	O
the	O
melting	O
point	O
that	O
dislocations	O
in	O
the	O
metal	O
can	O
climb	O
out	O
of	O
their	O
glide	O
plane	O
to	O
avoid	O
obstacles	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Where	O
is	O
the	O
gas	O
constant	O
,	O
is	O
temperature	O
,	O
is	O
the	O
uniaxial	O
strain	O
rate	O
,	O
is	O
the	O
creep	O
stress	O
,	O
and	O
for	O
lithium	B-Language
metal	I-Language
,	O
,	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
lithium	B-Language
metal	I-Language
to	O
be	O
used	O
as	O
an	O
anode	O
,	O
great	O
care	O
must	O
be	O
taken	O
to	O
minimize	O
the	O
cell	O
pressure	O
to	O
relatively	O
low	O
values	O
on	O
the	O
order	O
of	O
its	O
yield	O
stress	O
of	O
0.8	O
MPa	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
normal	O
operating	O
cell	O
pressure	O
for	O
lithium	B-Language
metal	I-Language
anode	O
is	O
anywhere	O
from	O
1-7	O
MPa	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
possible	O
strategies	O
to	O
minimize	O
stress	O
on	O
the	O
lithium	B-Language
metal	I-Language
are	O
to	O
use	O
cells	O
with	O
springs	O
of	O
a	O
chosen	O
spring	O
constant	O
or	O
controlled	O
pressurization	O
of	O
the	O
entire	O
cell	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Another	O
strategy	O
may	O
be	O
to	O
sacrifice	O
some	O
energy	O
capacity	O
and	O
use	O
a	O
lithium	B-Language
metal	I-Language
alloy	B-Application
anode	O
which	O
typically	O
has	O
a	O
higher	O
melting	O
temperature	O
than	O
pure	O
lithium	B-Language
metal	I-Language
,	O
resulting	O
in	O
a	O
lower	O
propensity	O
to	O
creep	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
these	O
alloys	B-Application
do	O
expand	O
quite	O
a	O
bit	O
when	O
lithiated	O
,	O
often	O
to	O
a	O
greater	O
degree	O
than	O
lithium	B-Language
metal	I-Language
,	O
they	O
also	O
possess	O
improved	O
mechanical	O
properties	O
allowing	O
them	O
to	O
operate	O
at	O
pressures	O
around	O
50	O
MPa	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Solid-state	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
technology	O
is	O
believed	O
to	O
deliver	O
higher	O
energy	O
densities	O
(	O
2.5x	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Because	O
most	O
liquid	O
electrolytes	O
are	O
flammable	O
and	O
solid	O
electrolytes	O
are	O
nonflammable	O
,	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
are	O
believed	O
to	O
have	O
lower	O
risk	O
of	O
catching	O
fire	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Solid-state	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
technology	O
is	O
believed	O
to	O
allow	O
for	O
faster	O
charging	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
earliest	O
thin	O
film	O
solid	B-Architecture
state	I-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
is	O
found	O
by	O
Keiichi	O
Kanehori	O
in	O
1986	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
based	O
on	O
the	O
Li	O
electrolyte	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Garbayo	O
demonstrated	O
that	O
“	O
polyamorphism	O
”	O
exists	O
besides	O
crystalline	O
states	O
for	O
thin	O
film	O
Li-garnet	O
solid	B-Architecture
state	I-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
in	O
2018	O
,	O
Moran	O
demonstrated	O
that	O
ample	O
can	O
manufacture	O
ceramic	O
films	O
with	O
the	O
desired	O
size	O
range	O
of	O
1	O
–	O
20	O
μm	O
in	O
2021	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Anode	O
materials	O
:	O
Li	O
is	O
favored	O
because	O
of	O
its	O
storage	O
properties	O
,	O
alloys	B-Application
of	O
Al	O
,	O
Si	O
and	O
Sn	O
are	O
also	O
suitable	O
as	O
anodes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lithium-Oxygen	O
and	O
Nitrogen	O
based	O
polymer	B-Language
thin	O
film	O
electrolytes	O
has	O
got	O
fully	O
used	O
in	O
solid	B-Architecture
state	I-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Non-Li	O
based	O
thin	O
film	O
solid	B-Architecture
state	I-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
have	O
been	O
studied	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
Ag-doped	O
germanium	O
chalcogenide	O
thin	O
film	O
solid	B-Algorithm
state	I-Algorithm
electrolyte	I-Algorithm
system	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
also	O
other	O
methods	O
to	O
fabricate	O
the	O
electrolytes	O
for	O
thin	O
film	O
solid	B-Architecture
state	I-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
,	O
which	O
are	O
1.electrostatic-spray	O
deposition	O
technique	O
,	O
2	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Using	O
MoO3	O
nanobelts	O
to	O
improve	O
the	O
performance	O
of	O
lithium	B-Language
based	O
thin	O
film	O
solid	B-Architecture
state	I-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
addition	O
to	O
high	O
energy	O
density	O
,	O
thin-film	O
solid-state	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
have	O
long	O
lifetime	O
,	O
outstanding	O
flexibility	O
and	O
low	O
weight	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
properties	O
make	O
thin	O
film	O
solid	B-Architecture
state	I-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
suitable	O
for	O
use	O
in	O
various	O
fields	O
such	O
as	O
electric	O
vehicles	O
,	O
military	O
facilities	O
and	O
medical	O
devices	O
.	O
</s>
