<s>
The	O
sodium-ion	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
(	O
NIB	O
or	O
SIB	O
)	O
is	O
a	O
type	O
of	O
rechargeable	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
that	O
uses	O
sodium	O
ions	O
(	O
Na+	O
)	O
as	O
its	O
charge	O
carriers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Its	O
working	O
principle	O
and	O
cell	O
construction	O
in	O
some	O
case	O
are	O
similar	O
to	O
those	O
of	O
lithium-ion	O
battery	O
(	O
LIB	O
)	O
types	O
,	O
but	O
replace	O
lithium	B-Language
with	O
sodium	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
SIBs	O
received	O
academic	O
and	O
commercial	O
interest	O
in	O
the	O
2010s	O
and	O
2020s	O
,	O
largely	O
due	O
to	O
the	O
uneven	O
geographic	O
distribution	O
,	O
high	O
environmental	O
impact	O
and	O
high	O
cost	O
of	O
many	O
of	O
the	O
materials	O
required	O
for	O
lithium-ion	O
batteries	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Chief	O
among	O
these	O
are	O
lithium	B-Language
,	O
cobalt	B-Algorithm
,	O
copper	O
and	O
nickel	O
,	O
which	O
are	O
not	O
strictly	O
required	O
for	O
many	O
types	O
of	O
sodium-ion	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
largest	O
advantage	O
of	O
sodium-ion	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
is	O
the	O
natural	O
abundance	O
of	O
sodium	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Challenges	O
to	O
adoption	O
of	O
SIBs	O
include	O
low	O
energy	O
density	O
and	O
insufficient	O
charge-discharge	B-Algorithm
cycles	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
technology	O
is	O
not	O
mentioned	O
in	O
a	O
United	O
States	O
Energy	O
Information	O
Administration	O
report	O
on	O
battery	O
storage	O
technologies	O
from	O
2021	O
and	O
electric	O
vehicles	O
using	O
sodium-ion	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
are	O
not	O
commercially	O
available	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
February	O
2023	O
,	O
the	O
Chinese	O
HiNa	O
Battery	O
Technology	O
Co.	O
,	O
Ltd	O
.	O
placed	O
a	O
140	O
Wh/kg	O
sodium-ion	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
in	O
an	O
electric	O
test	O
car	O
for	O
the	O
first	O
time	O
and	O
energy	O
storage	O
manufacturer	O
Pylontech	O
obtained	O
the	O
first	O
sodium-ion	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
certificate	O
by	O
TÜV	O
Rheinland	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Sodium-ion	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
development	O
took	O
place	O
in	O
the	O
1970s	O
and	O
early	O
1980s	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
by	O
the	O
1990s	O
,	O
lithium-ion	O
batteries	O
had	O
more	O
demonstrated	O
commercial	O
promise	O
,	O
causing	O
interest	O
in	O
sodium-ion	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
to	O
decline	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
early	O
2010s	O
,	O
sodium-ion	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
experienced	O
a	O
resurgence	O
,	O
driven	O
largely	O
by	O
the	O
increasing	O
cost	O
of	O
lithium-ion	O
battery	O
raw	O
materials	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2015	O
researchers	O
demonstrated	O
that	O
graphite	O
could	O
co-intercalate	O
sodium	O
in	O
ether-based	O
electrolytes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2021	O
researchers	O
from	O
China	O
tried	O
layered	O
structure	O
as	O
a	O
new	O
type	O
of	O
anode	O
for	O
sodium-ion	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Graphene	O
Janus	O
particles	O
have	O
been	O
used	O
in	O
experimental	O
sodium-ion	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
to	O
increase	O
energy	O
density	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
To	O
keep	O
costs	O
low	O
,	O
research	O
attempts	O
to	O
minimize	O
costly	O
elements	O
such	O
as	O
Co	B-Algorithm
,	O
Cr	B-Language
,	O
Ni	O
or	O
V	O
.	O
A	O
P2-type	O
Na2/3Fe1/2Mn1/2O2	O
oxide	O
from	O
earth-abundant	O
Fe	O
and	O
Mn	O
resources	O
can	O
reversibly	O
store	O
190	O
mAh/g	O
at	O
average	O
discharge	O
voltage	O
of	O
2.75	O
V	O
vs	O
Na/Na	O
+	O
utilising	O
the	O
Fe3+	O
/4	O
+	O
redox	B-Operating_System
couple	I-Operating_System
–	O
on	O
par	O
or	O
better	O
than	O
commercial	O
lithium-ion	O
cathodes	O
such	O
as	O
LiFePO4	O
or	O
LiMn2O4	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
particular	O
,	O
the	O
O3-type	O
NaNi1/4Na1/6Mn2/12Ti4/12Sn1/12O2	O
oxide	O
can	O
deliver	O
160	O
mAh/g	O
at	O
average	O
voltage	O
of	O
3.22	O
V	O
vs	O
Na/Na	O
+	O
,	O
while	O
a	O
series	O
of	O
doped	O
Ni-based	O
oxides	O
of	O
the	O
stoichiometry	O
NaaNi( 1−x−y−z	O
)	O
MnxMgyTizO2	O
can	O
deliver	O
157	O
mAh/g	O
in	O
a	O
sodium-ion	O
“	O
full	O
cell	O
”	O
with	O
a	O
hard	O
carbon	O
anode	O
at	O
average	O
discharge	O
voltage	O
of	O
3.2	O
V	O
utilising	O
the	O
Ni2+	O
/4	O
+	O
redox	B-Operating_System
couple	I-Operating_System
.	O
</s>
<s>
Such	O
performance	O
in	O
full	O
cell	O
configuration	O
is	O
better	O
or	O
on	O
par	O
with	O
commercial	O
lithium-ion	O
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
may	O
be	O
offset	O
by	O
the	O
stronger	O
covalent	O
bonding	O
of	O
the	O
polyanion	O
that	O
positively	O
impacts	O
cycle	B-Algorithm
life	I-Algorithm
and	O
safety	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Sodium-ion	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
can	O
use	O
aqueous	O
and	O
non-aqueous	O
electrolytes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Sodium-ion	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
have	O
several	O
advantages	O
over	O
competing	O
battery	O
technologies	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Compared	O
to	O
lithium-ion	O
batteries	O
,	O
sodium-ion	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
have	O
somewhat	O
lower	O
cost	O
,	O
slightly	O
lower	O
energy	O
density	O
,	O
better	O
safety	O
characteristics	O
,	O
and	O
similar	O
power	O
delivery	O
characteristics	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
table	O
below	O
compares	O
how	O
NIBs	O
in	O
general	O
fare	O
against	O
the	O
two	O
established	O
rechargeable	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
technologies	O
in	O
the	O
market	O
currently	O
:	O
the	O
lithium-ion	O
battery	O
and	O
the	O
rechargeable	B-Architecture
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
battery	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
+Battery	O
comparison	O
Sodium-ion	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
Lithium-ion	O
battery	O
Lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
battery	I-Device
Cost	O
per	O
kilowatt-hour	O
of	O
capacity$40	O
–	O
77$137	O
(	O
average	O
in	O
2020	O
)	O
.	O
$100	O
–	O
300	O
Volumetric	O
energy	O
density250	O
–	O
375	O
W·	O
h/L	O
,	O
based	O
on	O
prototypes200	O
–	O
683	O
W·	O
h/L80	O
–	O
90	O
W·	O
h/L	O
Gravimetric	O
energy	O
density	O
(	O
specific	O
energy	O
)	O
75	O
–	O
165	O
W·	O
h/kg	O
,	O
based	O
on	O
prototypes	O
and	O
product	O
announcements120	O
–	O
260	O
W·	O
h/kg35	O
–	O
40	O
Wh/kg	O
Cycles	O
at	O
80%	O
depth	O
of	O
dischargeHundreds	O
to	O
thousands.3	O
,	O
500900	O
SafetyLow	O
risk	O
for	O
aqueous	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
,	O
high	O
risk	O
for	O
Na	O
in	O
carbon	O
batteriesHigh	O
riskModerate	O
risk	O
MaterialsEarth-abundantScarceToxic	O
Cycling	O
stabilityHigh	O
(	O
negligible	O
self-discharge	B-Algorithm
)	O
High	O
(	O
negligible	O
self-discharge	B-Algorithm
)	O
Moderate	O
(	O
high	O
self-discharge	B-Algorithm
)	O
Direct	O
current	O
round-trip	O
efficiencyup	O
to	O
92%85	O
–	O
95%70	O
–	O
90%	O
Temperature	O
range−20	O
°C	O
to	O
60	O
°	O
CAcceptable	O
:	O
−20	O
°C	O
to	O
60	O
°C	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Companies	O
around	O
the	O
world	O
have	O
been	O
working	O
to	O
develop	O
commercially	O
viable	O
sodium-ion	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Their	O
pouch	O
cells	O
have	O
energy	O
densities	O
comparable	O
to	O
commercial	O
Li-ion	O
batteries	O
(	O
160	O
Wh/kg	O
at	O
cell-level	O
)	O
with	O
good	O
rate	O
performance	O
till	O
3C	O
and	O
cycle	B-Algorithm
lives	I-Algorithm
of	O
300	O
(	O
100%	O
depth	B-Algorithm
of	I-Algorithm
discharge	I-Algorithm
)	O
to	O
over	O
1,000	O
cycles	O
(	O
80%	O
depth	B-Algorithm
of	I-Algorithm
discharge	I-Algorithm
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
HiNa	O
Battery	O
Technology	O
Co.	O
,	O
Ltd	O
is	O
,	O
a	O
spin-off	O
from	O
the	O
Chinese	O
Academy	O
of	O
Sciences	O
(	O
CAS	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2023	O
,	O
HiNa	O
partnered	O
with	O
JAC	O
as	O
the	O
first	O
company	O
to	O
put	O
a	O
sodium-ion	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
in	O
an	O
electric	O
car	O
,	O
the	O
Sehol	O
E10X	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
HiNa	O
also	O
revealed	O
three	O
sodium-ion	O
products	O
,	O
the	O
NaCR32140-ME12	O
cylindrical	O
cell	O
,	O
the	O
NaCP50160118-ME80	O
square	O
cell	O
and	O
the	O
NaCP73174207-ME240	O
square	O
cell	O
,	O
with	O
gravimetric	O
energy	O
densities	O
of	O
140	O
Wh/kg	O
,	O
145	O
Wh/kg	O
and	O
155	O
Wh/kg	O
respectively.In	O
2019	O
,	O
it	O
was	O
reported	O
that	O
HiNa	O
installed	O
a	O
100	O
kWh	O
sodium-ion	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
power	O
bank	O
in	O
East	O
China	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
company	O
offers	O
a	O
proprietary	O
iron-based	O
Prussian	O
blue	O
analogue	O
for	O
the	O
positive	O
electrode	O
in	O
non-aqueous	O
sodium-ion	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
that	O
use	O
hard	O
carbon	O
as	O
the	O
anode	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
company	O
planned	O
to	O
produce	O
a	O
hybrid	O
battery	O
pack	O
that	O
includes	O
both	O
sodium-ion	O
and	O
lithium-ion	O
cells	O
.	O
</s>
