<s>
Social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
theory	I-General_Concept
explores	O
how	O
the	O
"	O
sense	O
of	O
being	O
with	O
another	O
"	O
is	O
influenced	O
by	O
digital	O
interfaces	O
in	O
human-computer	O
interactions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Developed	O
from	O
the	O
foundations	O
of	O
interpersonal	O
communication	O
and	O
symbolic	O
interactionism	O
,	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
theory	I-General_Concept
was	O
first	O
formally	O
introduced	O
by	O
John	O
Short	O
,	O
Ederyn	O
Williams	O
,	O
and	O
Bruce	O
Christie	O
in	O
The	O
Social	O
Psychology	O
of	O
Telecommunications	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Research	O
on	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
theory	I-General_Concept
has	O
recently	O
developed	O
to	O
examine	O
the	O
efficacy	O
of	O
telecommunications	O
media	O
,	O
including	O
SNS	O
communications	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
theory	O
notes	O
that	O
computer-based	O
communication	O
is	O
lower	O
in	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
than	O
face-to-face	O
communication	O
,	O
but	O
different	O
computer-based	O
communications	O
can	O
affect	O
the	O
levels	O
of	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
between	O
communicators	O
and	O
receivers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
concept	O
of	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
originated	O
from	O
Morton	O
Wiener	O
and	O
Albert	O
Mehrabian	O
's	O
study	O
of	O
immediacy	O
and	O
Michael	O
Argyle	O
and	O
Janet	O
Dean	O
's	O
concept	O
of	O
intimacy	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Social	B-General_Concept
Presence	I-General_Concept
Theory	I-General_Concept
is	O
defined	O
by	O
the	O
different	O
apparent	O
physical	O
proximities	O
produced	O
by	O
various	O
media	O
,	O
the	O
two	O
more	O
popular	O
media	O
being	O
face-to-face	O
communication	O
and	O
online	O
interaction	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
is	O
measured	O
by	O
the	O
ability	O
to	O
project	O
physical	O
and	O
emotional	O
presence	O
and	O
experience	O
it	O
from	O
others	O
in	O
interactions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Definitions	O
of	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
are	O
inconsistent	O
,	O
as	O
scholars	O
attempt	O
to	O
pinpoint	O
what	O
the	O
phenomenon	O
encompasses	O
,	O
and	O
how	O
it	O
can	O
be	O
adapted	O
as	O
new	O
media	O
of	O
interpersonal	O
communication	O
arise	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Social	B-General_Concept
Presence	I-General_Concept
in	O
recent	O
years	O
has	O
been	O
defined	O
as	O
the	O
feeling	O
of	O
community	O
a	O
learner	O
experiences	O
in	O
an	O
online	O
environment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Patrick	O
R	O
.	O
Lowenthal	O
noted	O
that	O
concepts	O
of	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
fall	O
on	O
a	O
spectrum	O
between	O
users	O
 '	O
perceptions	O
of	O
a	O
person	O
being	O
real	O
or	O
"	O
being	O
there	O
"	O
and	O
whether	O
two	O
communicators	O
experience	O
positive	O
interpersonal	O
and	O
emotional	O
connections	O
between	O
each	O
other	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Other	O
research	O
has	O
defined	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
as	O
the	O
awareness	O
of	O
others	O
in	O
an	O
interaction	O
,	O
combined	O
with	O
an	O
appreciation	O
of	O
the	O
interpersonal	O
aspects	O
of	O
that	O
interaction	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1995	O
,	O
Gunawardena	O
argued	O
that	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
varied	O
with	O
perception	O
and	O
was	O
a	O
subjective	O
issue	O
based	O
upon	O
objective	O
qualities	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
We	O
are	O
social	O
beings	O
,	O
and	O
we	O
crave	O
socialization	O
,	O
and	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
explains	O
how	O
we	O
form	O
relationships	O
and	O
how	O
beneficial	O
and	O
necessary	O
they	O
are	O
to	O
our	O
lives	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
definitions	O
and	O
interpretations	O
of	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
—	O
given	O
by	O
multiple	O
sources	O
after	O
the	O
original	O
work	O
conducted	O
by	O
Short	O
,	O
Williams	O
,	O
and	O
Christie	O
—	O
have	O
offered	O
a	O
more	O
unobstructed	O
view	O
that	O
Social	B-General_Concept
Presence	I-General_Concept
is	O
more	O
of	O
a	O
combination	O
of	O
factors	O
that	O
present	O
themselves	O
in	O
a	O
way	O
so	O
as	O
to	O
develop	O
greater	O
intimacy	O
within	O
a	O
group	O
that	O
has	O
a	O
positive	O
effect	O
on	O
the	O
individual	O
's	O
affective	O
filters	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Several	O
researchers	O
have	O
suggested	O
that	O
intimacy	O
and	O
immediacy	O
are	O
contributing	O
factors	O
to	O
Social	B-General_Concept
Presence	I-General_Concept
with	O
intimacy	O
defined	O
as	O
a	O
measure	O
of	O
communication	O
involving	O
eye	O
contact	O
,	O
proximity	O
and	O
body	O
language	O
and	O
immediacy	O
defined	O
as	O
the	O
psychological	O
distance	O
between	O
two	O
parties	O
that	O
is	O
conveyed	O
through	O
verbal	O
and	O
nonverbal	O
cues	O
in	O
speech	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
'	O
s	O
definition	O
was	O
not	O
satisfactory	O
because	O
it	O
did	O
not	O
include	O
all	O
components	O
of	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
He	O
also	O
said	O
that	O
the	O
theory	O
did	O
not	O
address	O
enough	O
degrees	O
of	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
in	O
computer-mediated	O
communications	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2000	O
–	O
2001	O
,	O
Tu	O
argued	O
that	O
within	O
distance	O
learning	O
,	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
rests	O
upon	O
three	O
dimensions	O
:	O
social	O
context	O
,	O
online	O
communication	O
,	O
and	O
interactivity	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Social	O
contexts	O
contribute	O
to	O
a	O
predictable	O
degree	O
of	O
perceived	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Social	B-General_Concept
Presence	I-General_Concept
Theory	I-General_Concept
classifies	O
different	O
communication	O
media	O
on	O
a	O
one-dimensional	O
continuum	O
of	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
,	O
where	O
the	O
degree	O
of	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
is	O
equated	O
to	O
the	O
degree	O
of	O
awareness	O
of	O
the	O
other	O
person	O
in	O
a	O
communication	O
interaction	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Social	B-General_Concept
Presence	I-General_Concept
Theory	I-General_Concept
in	O
communication	O
is	O
effective	O
if	O
the	O
communication	O
medium	O
has	O
the	O
appropriate	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
required	O
for	O
the	O
level	O
of	O
interpersonal	O
involvement	O
required	O
in	O
an	O
engagement	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
one	O
of	O
the	O
challenges	O
communicators	O
have	O
at	O
the	O
time	O
of	O
engaging	O
their	O
audience	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
On	O
a	O
continuum	O
of	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
,	O
the	O
face-to-face	O
medium	O
is	O
considered	O
to	O
have	O
the	O
most	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
;	O
and	O
written	O
,	O
text-based	O
communication	O
the	O
least	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
assumed	O
in	O
Social	B-General_Concept
Presence	I-General_Concept
Theory	I-General_Concept
that	O
in	O
any	O
interaction	O
involving	O
two	O
parties	O
,	O
both	O
parties	O
are	O
concerned	O
with	O
acting	O
out	O
certain	O
roles	O
and	O
developing	O
or	O
maintaining	O
some	O
sort	O
of	O
personal	O
relationship	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
computer-mediated	O
communication	O
has	O
evolved	O
,	O
a	O
more	O
relational	O
view	O
of	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
has	O
emerged	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
has	O
come	O
to	O
be	O
viewed	O
as	O
the	O
way	O
individuals	O
represent	O
themselves	O
in	O
their	O
online	O
environment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
is	O
demonstrated	O
by	O
the	O
way	O
messages	O
are	O
posted	O
and	O
how	O
those	O
messages	O
are	O
interpreted	O
by	O
others	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
defines	O
how	O
participants	O
relate	O
to	O
one	O
another	O
,	O
which	O
in	O
turn	O
affects	O
their	O
ability	O
to	O
communicate	O
effectively	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Social	B-General_Concept
Presence	I-General_Concept
Theory	I-General_Concept
provides	O
a	O
foundation	O
for	O
communication	O
systems	O
designers	O
and	O
serves	O
as	O
a	O
main	O
principle	O
in	O
computer-mediated-communication	O
studies	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Gorham	O
&	O
Cristophel	O
(	O
1990	O
)	O
,	O
Tu	O
&	O
McIsaac	O
(	O
2002	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
Aragon	O
(	O
2003	O
)	O
place	O
high	O
importance	O
on	O
using	O
engagement	O
tactics	O
,	O
in	O
online	O
classrooms	O
,	O
geared	O
towards	O
increasing	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
and	O
reducing	O
distance	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Designers	O
have	O
accepted	O
Social	B-General_Concept
Presence	I-General_Concept
Theory	I-General_Concept
as	O
a	O
major	O
design	O
principle	O
,	O
to	O
gain	O
insight	O
into	O
user	O
behavior	O
when	O
developing	O
web-based	O
applications	O
and	O
social	O
computing	O
technologies	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Research	O
related	O
to	O
the	O
importance	O
of	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
to	O
the	O
success	O
of	O
students	O
points	O
to	O
the	O
need	O
to	O
design	O
social	O
communication	O
tools	O
to	O
enhance	O
users	O
 '	O
experience	O
of	O
one	O
another	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
affects	O
different	O
aspects	O
of	O
a	O
learner	O
's	O
experience	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
their	O
"	O
success	O
(	O
Russo	O
&	O
Benson	O
,	O
2005	O
;	O
Zhan	O
&	O
Mei	O
,	O
2013	O
)	O
,	O
satisfaction	O
(	O
Gunawardena	O
&	O
Zittle	O
,	O
1997	O
;	O
Richardson	O
&	O
Swan	O
,	O
2003	O
;	O
So	O
&	O
Brush	O
,	O
2008	O
;	O
Zhan	O
&	O
Mei	O
,	O
2013	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
performance	O
(	O
Lomicka	O
&	O
Lord	O
,	O
2007	O
;	O
Richardson	O
&	O
Swan	O
,	O
2003	O
)	O
.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
positive	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
enables	O
students	O
to	O
engage	O
with	O
each	O
other	O
with	O
ease	O
,	O
while	O
a	O
negative	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
has	O
been	O
shown	O
to	O
increase	O
disappointment	O
in	O
users	O
,	O
which	O
decreases	O
cognition	O
and	O
familiarity	O
with	O
the	O
material	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Without	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
learning	O
interaction	O
suffers	O
,	O
which	O
has	O
negative	O
effects	O
on	O
learning	O
performance	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Patrick	O
Lowenthal	O
discussed	O
future	O
trends	O
in	O
online	O
learning	O
with	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
theory	I-General_Concept
in	O
mind	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
He	O
stated	O
"	O
researchers	O
and	O
practitioners	O
alike	O
will	O
have	O
to	O
consider	O
a	O
new	O
host	O
of	O
things	O
related	O
to	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
with	O
the	O
continued	O
blurring	O
of	O
boundaries	O
between	O
classroom	O
and	O
fully	O
online	O
courses	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
between	O
course	O
bound	O
communication	O
tools	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
discussion	O
forums	O
)	O
and	O
non-course	O
bound	O
tools	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
Facebook	O
and	O
Twitter	O
)	O
....	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
Social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
is	O
critical	O
in	O
improving	O
instructional	O
effectiveness	O
in	O
any	O
setting	O
,	O
especially	O
in	O
distance	O
education	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2000	O
–	O
2001	O
,	O
Tu	O
argued	O
that	O
within	O
distance	O
learning	O
,	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
has	O
three	O
dimensions	O
:	O
social	O
context	O
,	O
online	O
communication	O
,	O
and	O
interactivity	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Social	O
contexts	O
contribute	O
to	O
a	O
predictable	O
degree	O
of	O
perceived	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
an	O
example	O
,	O
when	O
a	O
conversation	O
is	O
task-based	O
and	O
public	O
without	O
a	O
sense	O
of	O
community	O
being	O
in	O
place	O
,	O
the	O
perception	O
of	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
is	O
low	O
and	O
affective	O
filtering	O
(	O
a	O
communication	O
blockage	O
brought	O
about	O
by	O
negative	O
emotional	O
feelings	O
)	O
is	O
high	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Recent	O
research	O
highlights	O
the	O
importance	O
of	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
in	O
educational	O
settings	O
when	O
delivering	O
feedback	O
on	O
marked	O
assessments	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
three	O
common	O
forms	O
of	O
measuring	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
:	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Social	B-General_Concept
Presence	I-General_Concept
Scale	O
(	O
SPRES	O
)	O
,	O
created	O
by	O
Charlotte	O
Gunawardena	O
and	O
Frank	O
Zittle	O
,	O
consists	O
of	O
14	O
Likert	O
items	O
to	O
indicate	O
users	O
 '	O
perceived	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Social	B-General_Concept
Presence	I-General_Concept
and	O
Privacy	O
Questionnaire	O
(	O
SPPQ	O
)	O
,	O
designed	O
by	O
Chih-Hsiung	O
Tu	O
,	O
distinguished	O
social	O
context	O
,	O
online	O
communication	O
,	O
and	O
interactivity	B-General_Concept
based	O
on	O
a	O
CMC	O
attitude	O
instrument	O
and	O
perceived	O
privacy	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Karel	O
Kreijns	O
,	O
Paul	O
A	O
.	O
Kirschner	O
,	O
Wim	O
Jochems	O
,	O
and	O
Hans	O
van	O
Buuren	O
developed	O
a	O
self-reporting	O
Social	B-General_Concept
Presence	I-General_Concept
Scale	O
,	O
consisting	O
of	O
five	O
items	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
impressions	O
developed	O
into	O
visual	O
interpretations	O
of	O
the	O
other	O
,	O
and	O
a	O
sense	O
of	O
intimacy	O
and	O
identification	O
between	O
participants	O
,	O
which	O
led	O
to	O
greater	O
perception	O
of	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Interactivity	B-General_Concept
involves	O
the	O
activities	O
and	O
communication	O
styles	O
that	O
online	O
users	O
engage	O
in	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
What	O
style	O
participants	O
use	O
in	O
communicating	O
,	O
especially	O
the	O
style	O
teachers	O
use	O
,	O
will	O
impact	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
their	O
2002	O
study	O
on	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
,	O
Tu	O
and	O
McIssac	O
declared	O
,	O
"	O
Social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
positively	O
influences	O
online	O
instruction	O
;	O
however	O
,	O
frequency	O
of	O
participation	O
does	O
not	O
represent	O
high	O
Social	B-General_Concept
Presence	I-General_Concept
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
both	O
a	O
quantitative	O
and	O
qualitative	O
analysis	O
of	O
the	O
interactions	O
of	O
51	O
volunteers	O
,	O
Tu	O
and	O
McIssac	O
found	O
that	O
social	O
context	O
was	O
more	O
qualitative	O
(	O
a	O
learned	O
skill-set	O
rather	O
than	O
a	O
prescriptive	O
set	O
of	O
actions	O
)	O
to	O
achieve	O
positive	O
impact	O
,	O
online	O
communication	O
was	O
more	O
strongly	O
related	O
to	O
quantifiable	O
and	O
organizational	O
skills	O
of	O
participants	O
,	O
and	O
that	O
interactivity	B-General_Concept
constituted	O
skill	O
sets	O
and	O
communication	O
styles	O
used	O
in	O
combination	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
a	O
result	O
,	O
Tu	O
and	O
McIssac	O
identified	O
the	O
following	O
variables	O
that	O
had	O
strong	O
positive	O
effects	O
on	O
the	O
fueling	O
or	O
perception	O
of	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
research	O
in	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
is	O
ongoing	O
,	O
researchers	O
are	O
confidently	O
recommending	O
designing	O
online	O
and	O
e-format	O
courses	O
along	O
the	O
three	O
dimensions	O
that	O
have	O
been	O
discussed	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
building	O
trust	O
online	O
,	O
providing	O
social	O
"	O
hand	O
holding	O
"	O
support	O
up	O
front	O
in	O
any	O
course	O
using	O
computer-mediated	O
communication	O
,	O
and	O
promoting	O
informal	O
relationships	O
,	O
teachers	O
and	O
instructors	O
can	O
provide	O
a	O
strong	O
sense	O
of	O
social	B-General_Concept
presence	I-General_Concept
,	O
increase	O
a	O
sense	O
of	O
community	O
,	O
and	O
in	O
turn	O
increase	O
interaction	O
among	O
participants	O
.	O
</s>
