<s>
The	O
Semi-Automatic	B-Device
Ground	I-Device
Environment	I-Device
(	O
SAGE	O
)	O
was	O
a	O
system	O
of	O
large	B-Architecture
computers	I-Architecture
and	O
associated	O
networking	B-Architecture
equipment	O
that	O
coordinated	O
data	O
from	O
many	O
radar	B-Application
sites	O
and	O
processed	O
it	O
to	O
produce	O
a	O
single	O
unified	O
image	O
of	O
the	O
airspace	O
over	O
a	O
wide	O
area	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Its	O
enormous	O
computers	O
and	O
huge	O
displays	O
remain	O
a	O
part	O
of	O
cold	B-Application
war	I-Application
lore	O
,	O
and	O
after	O
decommissioning	O
were	O
common	O
props	O
in	O
movies	O
such	O
as	O
Dr.	O
Strangelove	O
and	O
Colossus	O
,	O
and	O
on	O
science	O
fiction	O
TV	O
series	O
such	O
as	O
The	O
Time	O
Tunnel	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
processing	O
power	O
behind	O
SAGE	O
was	O
supplied	O
by	O
the	O
largest	O
discrete	O
component-based	O
computer	O
ever	O
built	O
,	O
the	O
IBM-manufactured	O
AN/FSQ	B-Device
-7	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Each	O
SAGE	O
Direction	O
Center	O
(	O
DC	O
)	O
housed	O
an	O
FSQ-7	B-Device
which	O
occupied	O
an	O
entire	O
floor	O
,	O
approximately	O
not	O
including	O
supporting	O
equipment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
FSQ-7	B-Device
was	O
actually	O
two	O
computers	O
,	O
"	O
A	O
"	O
side	O
and	O
"	O
B	O
"	O
side	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Information	O
was	O
fed	O
to	O
the	O
DCs	O
from	O
a	O
network	O
of	O
radar	B-Application
stations	I-Application
as	O
well	O
as	O
readiness	O
information	O
from	O
various	O
defense	O
sites	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
computers	O
,	O
based	O
on	O
the	O
raw	O
radar	B-Application
data	O
,	O
developed	O
"	O
tracks	O
"	O
for	O
the	O
reported	O
targets	O
,	O
and	O
automatically	O
calculated	O
which	O
defenses	O
were	O
within	O
range	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Operators	O
used	O
light	B-Device
guns	I-Device
to	O
select	O
targets	O
on-screen	O
for	O
further	O
information	O
,	O
select	O
one	O
of	O
the	O
available	O
defenses	O
,	O
and	O
issue	O
commands	O
to	O
attack	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Connecting	O
the	O
various	O
sites	O
was	O
an	O
enormous	O
network	O
of	O
telephones	O
,	O
modems	B-Application
and	O
teleprinters	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Nevertheless	O
,	O
SAGE	O
was	O
the	O
backbone	O
of	O
NORAD	O
's	O
air	O
defense	O
system	O
into	O
the	O
1980s	O
,	O
by	O
which	O
time	O
the	O
tube-based	O
FSQ-7s	B-Device
were	O
increasingly	O
costly	O
to	O
maintain	O
and	O
completely	O
outdated	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Today	O
the	O
same	O
command	O
and	O
control	O
task	O
is	O
carried	O
out	O
by	O
microcomputers	B-Architecture
,	O
based	O
on	O
the	O
same	O
basic	O
underlying	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Just	O
prior	O
to	O
World	O
War	O
II	O
,	O
Royal	O
Air	O
Force	O
(	O
RAF	O
)	O
tests	O
with	O
the	O
new	O
Chain	O
Home	O
(	O
CH	O
)	O
radars	B-Application
had	O
demonstrated	O
that	O
relaying	O
information	O
to	O
the	O
fighter	O
aircraft	O
directly	O
from	O
the	O
radar	B-Application
sites	O
was	O
not	O
feasible	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
radars	B-Application
determined	O
the	O
map	O
coordinates	O
of	O
the	O
enemy	O
,	O
but	O
could	O
generally	O
not	O
see	O
the	O
fighters	O
at	O
the	O
same	O
time	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
solution	O
was	O
to	O
send	O
all	O
of	O
the	O
radar	B-Application
information	O
to	O
a	O
central	O
control	O
station	O
where	O
operators	O
collated	O
the	O
reports	O
into	O
single	O
tracks	O
,	O
and	O
then	O
reported	O
these	O
tracks	O
to	O
the	O
airbases	O
,	O
or	O
sectors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
proved	O
enormously	O
successful	O
during	O
the	O
Battle	B-Application
of	I-Application
Britain	I-Application
,	O
and	O
is	O
credited	O
as	O
being	O
a	O
key	O
part	O
of	O
the	O
RAF	O
's	O
success	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
system	O
was	O
extremely	O
expensive	O
in	O
manpower	O
terms	O
,	O
requiring	O
hundreds	O
of	O
telephone	O
operators	O
,	O
plotters	O
and	O
trackers	O
in	O
addition	O
to	O
the	O
radar	B-Application
operators	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
1944	O
,	O
analog	O
computers	O
had	O
been	O
installed	O
at	O
the	O
CH	O
stations	O
to	O
automatically	O
convert	O
radar	B-Application
readings	O
into	O
map	O
locations	O
,	O
eliminating	O
two	O
people	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Similar	O
systems	O
began	O
development	O
with	O
the	O
Royal	O
Canadian	O
Navy	O
,	O
DATAR	B-Device
,	O
and	O
the	O
US	O
Navy	O
,	O
the	O
Naval	B-Device
Tactical	I-Device
Data	I-Device
System	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Their	O
December	O
report	O
noted	O
a	O
key	O
problem	O
in	O
air	O
defense	O
using	O
ground-based	O
radars	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
bomber	O
approaching	O
a	O
radar	B-Application
station	I-Application
would	O
detect	O
the	O
signals	O
from	O
the	O
radar	B-Application
long	O
before	O
the	O
reflection	O
off	O
the	O
bomber	O
was	O
strong	O
enough	O
to	O
be	O
detected	O
by	O
the	O
station	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
committee	O
suggested	O
that	O
when	O
this	O
occurred	O
,	O
the	O
bomber	O
would	O
descend	O
to	O
low	O
altitude	O
,	O
thereby	O
greatly	O
limiting	O
the	O
radar	B-Algorithm
horizon	I-Algorithm
,	O
allowing	O
the	O
bomber	O
to	O
fly	O
past	O
the	O
station	O
undetected	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
system	O
tasked	O
with	O
defending	O
cities	O
against	O
the	O
predicted	O
future	O
Soviet	O
bomber	O
fleet	O
would	O
have	O
to	O
be	O
dramatically	O
more	O
powerful	O
than	O
the	O
models	O
used	O
in	O
the	O
NTDS	O
or	O
DATAR	B-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
was	O
the	O
Whirlwind	B-Device
I	I-Device
,	O
originally	O
developed	O
for	O
the	O
Office	O
of	O
Naval	O
Research	O
as	O
a	O
general	O
purpose	O
flight	B-Application
simulator	I-Application
that	O
could	O
simulate	O
any	O
current	O
or	O
future	O
aircraft	O
by	O
changing	O
its	O
software	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wiesner	O
introduced	O
Valley	O
to	O
Whirlwind	B-Device
's	O
project	O
lead	O
,	O
Jay	O
Forrester	O
,	O
who	O
convinced	O
him	O
that	O
Whirlwind	B-Device
was	O
sufficiently	O
capable	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
September	O
1950	O
,	O
an	O
early	O
microwave	O
early-warning	B-Algorithm
radar	I-Algorithm
system	O
at	O
Hanscom	O
Field	O
was	O
connected	O
to	O
Whirlwind	B-Device
using	O
a	O
custom	O
interface	O
developed	O
by	O
Forrester	O
's	O
team	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
aircraft	O
was	O
flown	O
past	O
the	O
site	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
system	O
digitized	O
the	O
radar	B-Application
information	O
and	O
successfully	O
sent	O
it	O
to	O
Whirlwind	B-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Ridenour	O
approached	O
MIT	O
President	O
James	O
Killian	O
with	O
the	O
aim	O
of	O
beginning	O
a	O
development	O
lab	O
similar	O
to	O
the	O
war-era	O
Radiation	O
Laboratory	O
that	O
made	O
enormous	O
progress	O
in	O
radar	B-Application
technology	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
During	O
April	O
of	O
the	O
same	O
year	O
,	O
US	O
Air	O
Force	O
staff	O
were	O
identifying	O
specifically	O
the	O
requirement	O
for	O
the	O
creation	O
of	O
automatic	O
equipment	O
for	O
radar-detection	O
which	O
would	O
relay	O
information	O
to	O
an	O
air	O
defence	O
control	O
system	O
,	O
a	O
system	O
which	O
would	O
function	O
without	O
the	O
inclusion	O
of	O
persons	O
for	O
its	O
operation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
December	O
1949	O
"	O
Air	O
Defense	O
Systems	O
Engineering	O
Committee	O
"	O
led	O
by	O
Dr.	O
George	O
Valley	O
had	O
recommended	O
computerized	O
networking	B-Architecture
for	O
"	O
radar	B-Application
stations	I-Application
guarding	O
the	O
northern	O
air	O
approaches	O
to	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
"	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
in	O
Canada	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
After	O
a	O
January	O
1950	O
meeting	O
,	O
Valley	O
and	O
Jay	O
Forrester	O
proposed	O
using	O
the	O
Whirlwind	B-Device
I	I-Device
(	O
completed	O
1951	O
)	O
for	O
air	O
defense	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
a	O
test	O
for	O
the	O
US	O
military	O
at	O
Bedford	O
,	O
Massachusetts	O
on	O
20	O
April	O
1951	O
,	O
data	O
produced	O
by	O
a	O
radar	B-Application
was	O
transmitted	O
through	O
telephone	O
lines	O
to	O
a	O
computer	O
for	O
the	O
first	O
time	O
,	O
showing	O
the	O
detection	O
of	O
a	O
mock	O
enemy	O
aircraft	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
IBM	O
's	O
"	O
Project	O
High	O
"	O
assisted	O
under	O
their	O
October	O
1952	O
Whirlwind	B-Device
subcontract	O
with	O
Lincoln	O
Laboratory	O
,	O
and	O
a	O
1952	O
USAF	O
Project	O
Lincoln	O
"	O
fullscale	O
study	O
"	O
of	O
"	O
a	O
large	O
scale	O
integrated	O
ground	O
control	O
system	O
"	O
resulted	O
in	O
the	O
SAGE	O
approval	O
"	O
first	O
on	O
a	O
trial	O
basis	O
in	O
1953	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Similarly	O
,	O
the	O
July	O
22	O
,	O
1953	O
,	O
report	O
by	O
the	O
Bull	O
Committee	O
(	O
NSC	O
159	O
)	O
identified	O
completing	O
the	O
Mid-Canada	O
Line	O
radars	B-Application
as	O
the	O
top	O
priority	O
and	O
"	O
on	O
a	O
second-priority-basis	O
:	O
the	O
Lincoln	O
automated	O
system	O
"	O
(	O
the	O
decision	O
to	O
control	O
Bomarc	O
with	O
the	O
automated	O
system	O
was	O
also	O
in	O
1953	O
.	O
)	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Priority	O
Permanent	O
System	O
with	O
the	O
initial	O
(	O
priority	O
)	O
radar	B-Application
stations	I-Application
was	O
completed	O
in	O
1952	O
as	O
a	O
"	O
manual	O
air	O
defense	O
system	O
"	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
NORAD/ADC	O
used	O
a	O
"	O
Plexiglas	O
plotting	O
board	O
"	O
at	O
the	O
Ent	O
command	O
center	O
.	O
)	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Permanent	O
System	O
radar	B-Application
stations	I-Application
included	O
3	O
subsequent	O
phases	O
of	O
deployments	O
and	O
by	O
June	O
30	O
,	O
1957	O
,	O
had	O
119	O
"	O
Fixed	O
CONUS	O
"	O
radars	B-Application
,	O
29	O
"	O
Gap-filler	O
low	O
altitude	O
"	O
radars	B-Application
,	O
and	O
23	O
control	O
centers	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
At	O
"	O
the	O
end	O
of	O
1957	O
,	O
ADC	O
operated	O
182	O
radar	B-Application
stations	I-Application
 [ and ] 	O
17	O
control	O
centers	O
…	O
32	O
 [ stations ] 	O
had	O
been	O
added	O
during	O
the	O
last	O
half	O
of	O
the	O
year	O
as	O
low-altitude	O
,	O
unmanned	O
gap-filler	O
radars	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
total	O
consisted	O
of	O
47	O
gap-filler	O
stations	O
,	O
75	O
Permanent	O
System	O
radars	B-Application
,	O
39	O
semimobile	O
radars	B-Application
,	O
19	O
Pinetree	O
stations	O
,…	O
1	O
Lashup	O
-era	O
radar	B-Application
and	O
a	O
single	O
Texas	O
Tower	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
"	O
On	O
31	O
December	O
1958	O
,	O
USAF	O
ADC	O
had	O
187	O
operational	O
land-based	O
radar	B-Application
stations	I-Application
"	O
(	O
74	O
were	O
"	O
P-sites	O
"	O
,	O
29	O
"	O
M-sites	O
"	O
,	O
13	O
"	O
SM-sites	O
"	O
,	O
&	O
68	O
"	O
ZI	O
Gap	O
Fillers	O
"	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
"	O
develop	O
a	O
digital	O
computer	O
that	O
could	O
receive	O
vast	O
quantities	O
of	O
data	O
from	O
multiple	O
radars	B-Application
and	O
perform	O
real-time	O
processing	O
to	O
produce	O
targeting	O
information	O
for	O
intercepting	O
aircraft	O
and	O
missiles.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
AN/FSQ	B-Device
-7	I-Device
was	O
developed	O
by	O
the	O
Lincoln	O
Laboratory	O
's	O
Digital	O
Computer	O
Laboratory	O
and	O
Division	O
6	O
,	O
working	O
closely	O
with	O
IBM	O
as	O
the	O
manufacturer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Each	O
FSQ-7	B-Device
actually	O
consisted	O
of	O
two	O
nearly	O
identical	O
computers	O
operating	O
in	O
"	O
duplex	O
"	O
for	O
redundancy	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
design	O
used	O
an	O
improved	O
version	O
of	O
the	O
Whirlwind	B-Device
I	I-Device
magnetic	O
core	O
memory	O
and	O
was	O
an	O
extension	O
of	O
the	O
Whirlwind	B-Device
II	I-Device
computer	O
program	O
,	O
renamed	O
AN/FSQ	B-Device
-7	I-Device
in	O
1953	O
to	O
comply	O
with	O
Air	O
Force	O
nomenclature	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
has	O
been	O
suggested	O
the	O
FSQ-7	B-Device
was	O
based	O
on	O
the	O
IBM	B-Device
701	I-Device
but	O
,	O
while	O
the	O
701	O
was	O
investigated	O
by	O
MIT	O
engineers	O
,	O
its	O
design	O
was	O
ultimately	O
rejected	O
due	O
to	O
high	O
error	O
rates	O
and	O
generally	O
being	O
"	O
inadequate	O
to	O
the	O
task.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
IBM	O
's	O
contributions	O
were	O
essential	O
to	O
the	O
success	O
of	O
the	O
FSQ-7	B-Device
,	O
and	O
IBM	O
benefited	O
immensely	O
from	O
its	O
association	O
with	O
the	O
SAGE	B-Device
project	I-Device
,	O
most	O
evidently	O
during	O
development	O
of	O
the	O
IBM	B-Device
704	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
On	O
October	O
28	O
,	O
1953	O
,	O
the	O
Air	O
Force	O
Council	O
recommended	O
1955	O
funding	O
for	O
"	O
ADC	O
to	O
convert	O
to	O
the	O
Lincoln	O
automated	O
system	O
"	O
(	O
"	O
redesignated	O
the	O
SAGE	B-Device
System	I-Device
in	O
1954	O
"	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
"	O
experimental	O
SAGE	O
subsector	O
,	O
located	O
in	O
Lexington	O
,	O
Mass.	O
,	O
was	O
completed	O
in	O
1955	O
…	O
with	O
a	O
prototype	O
AN/FSQ	B-Device
-7	I-Device
…	O
known	O
as	O
XD-1	O
"	O
(	O
single	O
computer	O
system	O
in	O
Building	O
F	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
IBM	O
delivered	O
the	O
FSQ-7	B-Device
computer	O
's	O
prototype	O
in	O
June	O
1956	O
,	O
and	O
Kingston	O
's	O
XD-2	O
with	O
dual	O
computers	O
guided	O
a	O
Cape	O
Canaveral	O
BOMARC	O
to	O
a	O
successful	O
aircraft	O
intercept	O
on	O
August	O
7	O
,	O
1958	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Initially	O
contracted	O
to	O
RCA	O
,	O
the	O
AN/FSQ	B-Device
-7	I-Device
production	O
units	O
were	O
started	O
by	O
IBM	O
in	O
1958	O
(	O
32	O
DCs	O
were	O
planned	O
for	O
networking	B-Architecture
NORAD	O
regions	O
.	O
)	O
</s>
<s>
IBM	O
's	O
production	O
contract	O
developed	O
56	O
SAGE	B-Device
computers	I-Device
for	O
$	O
.5	O
billion	O
(	O
~	O
$18	O
million	O
per	O
computer	O
pair	O
in	O
each	O
FSQ-7	B-Device
)	O
—	O
cf	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Prior	O
to	O
fielding	O
the	O
AN/FSQ	B-Device
-7	I-Device
centrals	O
,	O
the	O
USAF	O
initially	O
deployed	O
"	O
pre-SAGE	O
semiautomatic	O
intercept	O
systems	O
"	O
(	O
AN/GPA	O
-37	O
)	O
to	O
Air	O
Defense	O
Direction	O
Centers	O
,	O
ADDCs	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
at	O
"	O
NORAD	O
Control	O
Centers	O
"	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1957	O
,	O
SAGE	B-Device
System	I-Device
groundbreaking	O
at	O
McChord	O
AFB	O
was	O
for	O
DC-12	O
where	O
the	O
"	O
electronic	O
brain	O
"	O
began	O
arriving	O
in	O
November	O
1958	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
"	O
first	O
SAGE	O
regional	O
battle	O
post	O
 [ CC-01 ] 	O
began	O
operating	O
in	O
Syracuse	O
,	O
New	O
York	O
in	O
early	O
1959	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Manual	O
divisions	O
"	O
not	O
to	O
get	O
SAGE	B-Device
computers	I-Device
were	O
to	O
be	O
phased	O
out	O
"	O
along	O
with	O
their	O
Manual	O
Air	O
Defense	O
Control	O
Centers	O
at	O
the	O
headquarters	O
base	O
:	O
"	O
9th	O
 [ at ] 	O
Geiger	O
Field	O
…	O
32d	O
,	O
Syracuse	O
AFS	O
…	O
35th	O
,	O
Dobbins	O
AFB	O
…	O
58th	O
,	O
Wright-Patterson	O
AFB	O
…	O
85th	O
,	O
Andrews	O
AFB	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
26th	O
SAGE	O
Division	O
(	O
New	O
York	O
,	O
Boston	O
,	O
Syracuse	O
&	O
Bangor	O
SAGE	O
sectors	O
)	O
--the	O
1st	O
of	O
the	O
SAGE	O
divisions	O
—	O
became	O
operational	O
at	O
Hancock	O
Field	O
on	O
1	O
January	O
1959	O
after	O
the	O
redesignation	O
started	O
for	O
AC&W	O
Squadrons	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
the	O
Highlands	O
P-9	O
unit	O
became	O
the	O
646th	O
Radar	B-Application
Squadron	O
(	O
SAGE	O
)	O
October	O
1	O
.	O
)	O
</s>
<s>
(	O
cited	O
by	O
Volume	O
I	O
p.271	O
&	O
Schaffel	O
p.325	O
)	O
After	O
a	O
September	O
1959	O
experimental	O
ATABE	O
test	O
between	O
an	O
"	O
abbreviated	O
"	O
AN/FSQ	B-Device
-7	I-Device
staged	O
at	O
Fort	O
Banks	O
and	O
the	O
Lexington	O
XD-1	O
,	O
the	O
1961	O
"	O
SAGE/Missile	O
Master	O
test	O
program	O
"	O
conducted	O
large-scale	O
field	O
testing	O
of	O
the	O
ATABE	O
"	O
mathematical	O
model	O
"	O
using	O
radar	B-Application
tracks	O
of	O
actual	O
SAC	O
and	O
ADC	O
aircraft	O
flying	O
mock	O
penetrations	O
into	O
defense	O
sectors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Similarly	O
conducted	O
was	O
the	O
joint	O
SAC-NORAD	O
Sky	O
Shield	O
II	O
exercise	O
followed	O
by	O
Sky	O
Shield	O
III	O
on	O
2	O
September	O
1962	O
On	O
July	O
15	O
,	O
1963	O
,	O
ESD	O
's	O
CMC	O
Management	O
Office	O
assumed	O
"	O
responsibilities	O
in	O
connection	O
with	O
BMEWS	B-Architecture
,	O
Space	O
Track	O
,	O
SAGE	O
,	O
and	O
BUIC.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Chidlaw	O
Building	O
's	O
computerized	O
NORAD/ADC	O
Combined	O
Operations	O
Center	O
in	O
1963	O
became	O
the	O
highest	O
echelon	O
of	O
the	O
SAGE	B-Device
computer	I-Device
network	O
when	O
operations	O
moved	O
from	O
Ent	O
AFB	O
's	O
1954	O
manual	O
Command	O
Center	O
to	O
the	O
partially	O
underground	O
"	O
war	O
room	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Also	O
in	O
1963	O
,	O
radar	B-Application
stations	I-Application
were	O
renumbered	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
Cambria	O
AFS	O
was	O
redesignated	O
from	O
P-2	O
to	O
Z-2	O
on	O
July	O
31	O
)	O
and	O
the	O
vacuum-tube	O
SAGE	B-Device
System	I-Device
was	O
completed	O
(	O
and	O
obsolete	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
completed	O
Minot	O
AFB	O
blockhouse	O
received	O
an	O
AN/FSQ	B-Device
-7	I-Device
,	O
but	O
never	O
received	O
the	O
FSQ-8	O
(	O
the	O
April	O
1	O
,	O
1959	O
,	O
Minot	O
Air	O
Defense	O
Sector	O
consolidated	O
with	O
the	O
Grand	O
Forks	O
ADS	O
on	O
March	O
1	O
,	O
1963	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
SAGE	B-Device
system	I-Device
included	O
a	O
direction	O
center	O
(	O
DC	O
)	O
assigned	O
to	O
air	O
defense	O
sectors	O
as	O
they	O
were	O
defined	O
at	O
the	O
time	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
)	O
DC-2020pxUSAMTMalmstrom	O
AFBGreat	O
Falls	O
ADSDC-2120pxUSAAZLuke	O
AFBPhoenix	O
ADSprogramming	O
center	O
for	O
all	O
other	O
SAGE	O
sites	O
DC-2220pxUSA	O
IA	O
Sioux	O
City	O
AFSSioux	O
City	O
ADSoperational	O
December	O
1961	O
,	O
completing	O
the	O
SAGE	B-Device
system	I-Device
;	O
used	O
AN/FSQ	O
-8	O
that	O
was	O
retrofitted	O
to	O
have	O
the	O
LRI	O
,	O
GFI	O
,	O
and	O
other	O
components/software	O
specific	O
to	O
the	O
Q-7	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
environment	O
allowed	O
radar	B-Application
station	I-Application
personnel	O
to	O
monitor	O
the	O
radar	B-Application
data	O
and	O
systems	O
 '	O
status	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
Arctic	O
Tower	O
radome	O
pressure	O
)	O
and	O
to	O
use	O
the	O
range	O
height	O
equipment	O
to	O
process	O
height	O
requests	O
from	O
Direction	O
Center	O
(	O
DC	O
)	O
personnel	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
DCs	O
received	O
the	O
Long	O
Range	O
Radar	B-Application
Input	O
from	O
the	O
sector	O
's	O
radar	B-Application
stations	I-Application
,	O
and	O
DC	O
personnel	O
monitored	O
the	O
radar	B-Application
tracks	O
and	O
IFF	O
data	O
provided	O
by	O
the	O
stations	O
,	O
requested	O
height-finder	O
radar	B-Application
data	O
on	O
targets	O
,	O
and	O
monitored	O
the	O
computer	O
's	O
evaluation	O
of	O
which	O
fighter	O
aircraft	O
or	O
Bomarc	O
missile	O
site	O
could	O
reach	O
the	O
threat	O
first	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
NORAD	O
's	O
integration	O
of	O
air	O
warning	O
data	O
(	O
at	O
the	O
ADOC	O
)	O
along	O
with	O
space	O
surveillance	O
,	O
intelligence	O
,	O
and	O
other	O
data	O
allowed	O
attack	O
assessment	O
of	O
an	O
Air	B-Application
Defense	I-Application
Emergency	I-Application
for	O
alerting	O
the	O
SAC	O
command	O
centers	O
(	O
465L	O
SACCS	O
nodes	O
at	O
Offutt	O
AFB	O
&	O
The	O
Notch	O
)	O
,	O
The	O
Pentagon/Raven	O
Rock	O
NMCC/ANMCC	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
public	O
via	O
CONELRAD	O
radio	O
stations	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Burroughs	O
416L	O
SAGE	O
component	O
(	O
ESD	O
Project	O
416L	O
,	O
Semi	B-Device
Automatic	I-Device
Ground	I-Device
Environment	I-Device
System	O
)	O
was	O
the	O
Cold	B-Application
War	I-Application
network	O
connecting	O
IBM	O
supplied	O
computer	O
system	O
at	O
the	O
various	O
DC	O
and	O
that	O
created	O
the	O
display	O
and	O
control	O
environment	O
for	O
operation	O
of	O
the	O
separate	O
radars	B-Application
and	O
to	O
provide	O
outbound	O
command	O
guidance	O
for	O
ground-controlled	O
interception	O
by	O
air	O
defense	O
aircraft	O
in	O
the	O
"	O
SAGE	O
Defense	O
System	O
"	O
(	O
"	O
Air	O
Defense	O
Weapons	O
System	O
"	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Burroughs	O
Corporation	O
was	O
a	O
prime	O
contractor	O
for	O
SAGE	O
network	O
interface	O
equipment	O
which	O
included	O
134	O
Burroughs	B-Device
AN/FST	I-Device
-2	I-Device
Coordinate	I-Device
Data	I-Device
Transmitting	I-Device
Sets	I-Device
(	O
CDTS	O
)	O
at	O
radar	B-Application
stations	I-Application
and	O
other	O
sites	O
,	O
the	O
IBM	O
supplied	O
AN/FSQ	B-Device
-7	I-Device
at	O
23	O
Direction	O
Centers	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
AN/FSQ	B-Device
-8	I-Device
Combat	I-Device
Control	I-Device
Computers	I-Device
at	O
8	O
Combat	O
Centers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
2	O
computers	O
of	O
each	O
AN/FSQ	B-Device
-7	I-Device
together	O
weighing	O
used	O
about	O
⅓	O
of	O
the	O
DC	O
's	O
2nd	O
floor	O
space	O
and	O
at	O
~	O
$50	O
per	O
instruction	O
had	O
approximately	O
125,000	O
"	O
computer	O
instructions	O
support[ing]	O
actual	O
operational	O
air-defense	O
mission	O
"	O
processing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
AN/FSQ	B-Device
-7	I-Device
at	O
Luke	O
AFB	O
had	O
additional	O
memory	O
(	O
32K	O
total	O
)	O
and	O
was	O
used	O
as	O
a	O
"	O
computer	O
center	O
for	O
all	O
other	O
"	O
DCs	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Network	O
communications	O
:	O
The	O
SAGE	O
network	O
of	O
computers	O
connected	O
by	O
a	O
"	O
Digital	O
Radar	B-Application
Relay	O
"	O
(	O
SAGE	O
data	O
system	O
)	O
used	O
AT&T	O
voice	O
lines	O
,	O
microwave	O
towers	O
,	O
switching	O
centers	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
SAGE	O
NNX	O
764	O
was	O
at	O
Delta	O
,	O
Utah	O
&	O
759	O
at	O
Mounds	O
,	O
Oklahoma	O
)	O
,	O
etc	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
CDTS	O
modems	B-Application
at	O
automated	O
radar	B-Application
stations	I-Application
transmitted	O
range	O
and	O
azimuth	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
Air	O
Movements	O
Identification	O
Service	O
(	O
AMIS	O
)	O
provided	O
air	B-Application
traffic	I-Application
data	O
to	O
the	O
SAGE	B-Device
System	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Radar	B-Application
tracks	O
by	O
telephone	O
calls	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
from	O
Manual	O
Control	O
Centers	O
in	O
the	O
Albuquerque	O
,	O
Minot	O
,	O
and	O
Oklahoma	O
City	O
sectors	O
)	O
could	O
be	O
entered	O
via	O
consoles	O
of	O
the	O
4th	O
floor	O
"	O
Manual	O
Inputs	O
"	O
room	O
adjacent	O
to	O
the	O
"	O
Communication	O
Recording-Monitoring	O
and	O
VHF	O
"	O
room	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
NORAD	O
Division	O
Warning	O
Networks	O
)	O
provided	O
the	O
radar	B-Application
netting	O
communications	O
for	O
each	O
DC	O
and	O
eventually	O
also	O
allowed	O
transfer	O
of	O
command	O
guidance	O
to	O
autopilots	O
of	O
TDDL-equipped	O
interceptors	O
for	O
vectoring	O
to	O
targets	O
via	O
the	O
Ground	O
to	O
Air	O
Data	O
Link	O
Subsystem	O
and	O
the	O
Ground	O
Air	O
Transmit	O
Receive	O
(	O
GATR	O
)	O
network	O
of	O
radio	O
sites	O
for	O
"	O
HF/VHF/UHF	O
voice	O
&	O
TDDL	O
"	O
each	O
generally	O
co-located	O
at	O
a	O
CDTS	O
site	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
SAGE	B-Device
System	I-Device
ergonomic	O
test	O
at	O
Luke	O
AFB	O
in	O
1964	O
"	O
showed	O
conclusively	O
that	O
the	O
wrong	O
timing	O
of	O
human	O
and	O
technical	O
operations	O
was	O
leading	O
to	O
frequent	O
truncation	O
of	O
the	O
flight	O
path	O
tracking	O
system	O
"	O
(	O
Harold	O
Sackman	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
SAGE	O
software	O
development	O
was	O
"	O
grossly	O
underestimated	O
"	O
(	O
60,000	O
lines	O
in	O
September	O
1955	O
)	O
:	O
"	O
the	O
biggest	O
mistake	O
 [ of ] 	O
the	O
SAGE	B-Device
computer	I-Device
program	O
was	O
[	O
underestimating	O
the ]	O
jump	O
from	O
the	O
35,000	O
 [ WWI ] 	O
instructions	O
…	O
to	O
the	O
more	O
than	O
100,000	O
instructions	O
on	O
the	O
"	O
AN/FSQ	O
-8	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
NORAD	O
conducted	O
a	O
Sage/Missile	O
Master	O
Integration/ECM	O
-ECCM	O
Test	O
in	O
1963	O
,	O
and	O
although	O
SAGE	O
used	O
AMIS	O
input	O
of	O
air	B-Application
traffic	I-Application
information	O
,	O
the	O
1959	O
plan	O
developed	O
by	O
the	O
July	O
1958	O
USAF	O
Air	O
Defense	O
Systems	O
Integration	O
Division	O
for	O
SAGE	O
Air	B-Application
Traffic	I-Application
Integration	O
(	O
SATIN	O
)	O
was	O
cancelled	O
by	O
the	O
DoD.	O
<	O
ref>Missile	O
Master	O
Plan	O
;	O
identified	O
by	O
Schaffel	O
p	O
.	O
260	O
:	O
"	O
…	O
the	O
Defense	O
Department	O
to	O
issue	O
,	O
on	O
June	O
19	O
,	O
1959	O
,	O
the	O
Key	O
features	O
of	O
the	O
plan	O
included	O
a	O
reduction	O
in	O
BOMARC	O
squadrons	O
,	O
cancellation	O
of	O
plans	O
to	O
upgrade	O
the	O
interceptor	O
force	O
,	O
and	O
a	O
new	O
austere	O
SAGE	O
program	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
SAGE	O
radar	B-Application
stations	I-Application
,	O
including	O
78	O
DEW	O
Line	O
sites	O
in	O
December	O
1961	O
,	O
(	O
Schaffel	O
p	O
.	O
268	O
citation	O
39	O
)	O
provided	O
radar	B-Application
tracks	O
to	O
DCs	O
and	O
had	O
frequency	O
diversity	O
(	O
FD	O
)	O
radars	B-Application
(	O
Schaffel	O
Ch	O
8	O
footnote	O
64	O
cites	O
this	O
report	O
on	O
pp	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
223/312	O
)	O
United	O
States	O
Navy	O
picket	O
ships	O
also	O
provided	O
radar	B-Application
tracks	O
,	O
and	O
seaward	O
radar	B-Application
coverage	O
was	O
provided	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
the	O
late	O
1960s	O
EC-121	O
Warning	O
Star	O
aircraft	O
based	O
at	O
Otis	O
AFB	O
MA	O
and	O
McClellan	O
AFB	O
CA	O
provided	O
radar	B-Application
tracks	O
via	O
automatic	O
data	O
link	O
to	O
the	O
SAGE	B-Device
System	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Civil	O
Aeronautics	O
Administration	O
radars	B-Application
were	O
at	O
some	O
stations	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
stations	O
of	O
the	O
Joint	O
Use	O
Site	O
System	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
ARSR-1	O
Air	O
Route	O
Surveillance	O
Radar	B-Application
rotation	O
rate	O
had	O
to	O
be	O
modified	O
"	O
for	O
SAGE	B-Device
 [ IFF/SIF ] 	I-Device
Modes	I-Device
III	I-Device
and	I-Device
IV	I-Device
"	O
(	O
"	O
antenna	O
gear	O
box	O
modification	O
"	O
for	O
compatibility	O
with	O
FSQ-7	B-Device
&	O
FSG-1	O
centrals	O
.	O
)	O
</s>
<s>
ADC	O
aircraft	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
F-94	O
Starfire	O
,	O
F-89	O
Scorpion	O
,	O
F-101B	O
Voodoo	O
,	O
and	O
F-4	O
Phantom	O
were	O
controlled	O
by	O
SAGE	B-Device
GCI	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Partially	O
solid-state	O
AN/FST	O
-2B	O
and	O
later	O
AN/FYQ	O
-47	O
computers	O
replaced	O
the	O
AN/FST	O
-2	O
,	O
and	O
sectors	O
without	O
AN/FSQ	B-Device
-7	I-Device
centrals	O
requiring	O
a	O
"	O
weapon	O
direction	O
control	O
device	O
"	O
for	O
USAF	O
air	O
defense	O
used	O
the	O
solid-state	O
AN/GSG	O
-5	O
CCCS	O
instead	O
of	O
the	O
AN/GPA	O
-73	O
recommended	O
by	O
ADC	O
in	O
June	O
1958	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Back-Up	O
Interceptor	O
Control	O
(	O
BUIC	O
)	O
with	O
CCCS	O
dispersed	O
to	O
radar	B-Application
stations	I-Application
for	O
survivability	O
allowed	O
a	O
diminished	O
but	O
functional	O
SAGE	O
capability	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1962	O
,	O
Burroughs	O
"	O
won	O
the	O
contract	O
to	O
provide	O
a	O
military	O
version	O
of	O
its	O
D825	O
"	O
modular	O
data	O
processing	O
system	O
for	O
BUIC	B-Device
II	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
BUIC	B-Device
II	I-Device
was	O
first	O
used	O
at	O
North	O
Truro	O
Z-10	O
in	O
1966	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
Hamilton	O
AFB	O
BUIC	B-Device
II	I-Device
was	O
installed	O
in	O
the	O
former	O
MCC	O
building	O
when	O
it	O
was	O
converted	O
to	O
a	O
SAGE	O
Combat	O
Center	O
in	O
1966	O
(	O
CC-05	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
On	O
June	O
3	O
,	O
1963	O
,	O
the	O
Direction	O
Centers	O
at	O
Marysville	O
CA	O
,	O
Marquette/K	O
I	O
Sawyer	O
AFB	O
(	O
DC-14	O
)	O
MI	O
,	O
Stewart	O
AFB	O
NY	O
(	O
DC-02	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
Moses	O
Lake	O
WA	O
(	O
DC-15	O
)	O
were	O
planned	O
for	O
closing	O
and	O
at	O
the	O
end	O
of	O
1969	O
,	O
only	O
6	O
CONUS	O
SAGE	O
DCs	O
remained	O
(	O
DC-03	O
,	O
-04	O
,	O
-10	O
,	O
-12	O
,	O
-20	O
,	O
&	O
-21	O
)	O
all	O
with	O
the	O
vacuum	O
tube	O
AN/FSQ	B-Device
-7	I-Device
centrals	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ADC	O
had	O
been	O
renamed	O
Aerospace	O
Defense	O
Command	O
on	O
January	O
15	O
,	O
1968	O
,	O
(	O
cited	O
by	O
Schaffel	O
)	O
and	O
its	O
general	O
surveillance	O
radar	B-Application
stations	I-Application
transferred	O
to	O
ADTAC	O
in	O
1979	O
when	O
the	O
ADC	O
major	O
command	O
was	O
broken	O
up	O
(	O
space	O
surveillance	O
stations	O
went	O
to	O
SAC	O
and	O
the	O
Aerospace	O
Defense	O
Center	O
was	O
activated	O
as	O
a	O
DRU	O
.	O
)	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
airborne	O
command	O
posts	O
,	O
"	O
as	O
early	O
as	O
1962	O
the	O
Air	O
Force	O
began	O
exploring	O
possibilities	O
for	O
an	O
Airborne	O
Warning	O
and	O
Control	O
System	O
(	O
AWACS	O
)	O
"	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
Strategic	O
Defense	O
Architecture	O
(	O
SDA-2000	O
)	O
planned	O
an	O
integrated	O
air	O
defense	O
and	O
air	B-Application
traffic	I-Application
control	I-Application
network	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
USAF	O
declared	O
full	O
operational	O
capability	O
of	O
the	O
first	O
seven	O
Joint	O
Surveillance	O
System	O
ROCCs	O
on	O
December	O
23	O
,	O
1980	O
,	O
with	O
Hughes	O
AN/FYQ	B-Device
-93	I-Device
systems	O
,	O
and	O
many	O
of	O
the	O
SAGE	O
radar	B-Application
stations	I-Application
became	O
Joint	O
Surveillance	O
System	O
(	O
JSS	O
)	O
sites	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
San	O
Pedro	O
Hill	O
Z-39	O
became	O
FAA	O
Ground	O
Equipment	O
Facility	O
J-31	O
.	O
)	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
North	O
Bay	O
AN/FSQ	B-Device
-7	I-Device
was	O
dismantled	O
and	O
sent	O
to	O
Boston	O
's	O
Computer	O
Museum	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1996	O
,	O
AN/FSQ	B-Device
-7	I-Device
components	O
were	O
moved	O
to	O
Moffett	O
Federal	O
Airfield	O
for	O
storage	O
and	O
later	O
moved	O
to	O
the	O
Computer	O
History	O
Museum	O
in	O
Mountain	O
View	O
,	O
California	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
last	O
AN/FSQ	B-Device
-7	I-Device
centrals	O
were	O
demolished	O
at	O
McChord	O
AFB	O
(	O
August	O
1983	O
)	O
and	O
Luke	O
AFB	O
(	O
February	O
1984	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Decommissioned	O
AN/FSQ	B-Device
-7	I-Device
equipment	O
was	O
also	O
used	O
as	O
science	O
fiction	O
cinema	O
and	O
TV	O
series	O
props	O
(	O
e.g.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1998	O
,	O
the	O
SAGE	B-Device
System	I-Device
was	O
identified	O
as	O
1	O
of	O
4	O
"	O
Monumental	O
Projects	O
"	O
,	O
and	O
a	O
SAGE	O
lecture	O
presented	O
the	O
vintage	O
film	O
In	O
Your	O
Defense	O
followed	O
by	O
anecdotal	O
information	O
from	O
Les	O
Earnest	O
,	O
Jim	O
Wong	O
,	O
and	O
Paul	O
Edwards	O
.	O
</s>
