<s>
Search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
privacy	I-Application
is	O
a	O
subset	O
of	O
internet	O
privacy	O
that	O
deals	O
with	O
user	O
data	O
being	O
collected	O
by	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Privacy	B-Application
concerns	I-Application
regarding	I-Application
search	I-Application
engines	I-Application
can	O
take	O
many	O
forms	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
ability	O
for	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
to	O
log	O
individual	O
search	O
queries	O
,	O
browsing	B-Protocol
history	I-Protocol
,	O
IP	B-Protocol
addresses	I-Protocol
,	O
and	O
cookies	B-Application
of	O
users	O
,	O
and	O
conducting	O
user	O
profiling	O
in	O
general	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
collection	O
of	O
personally	O
identifiable	O
information	O
(	O
PII	O
)	O
of	O
users	O
by	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
is	O
referred	O
to	O
as	O
"	O
tracking	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
is	O
controversial	O
because	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
often	O
claim	O
to	O
collect	O
a	O
user	O
's	O
data	O
in	O
order	O
to	O
better	O
tailor	O
results	O
to	O
that	O
specific	O
user	O
and	O
to	O
provide	O
the	O
user	O
with	O
a	O
better	O
searching	O
experience	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
can	O
also	O
abuse	O
and	O
compromise	O
its	O
users	O
 '	O
privacy	O
by	O
selling	O
their	O
data	O
to	O
advertisers	O
for	O
profit	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
absence	O
of	O
regulations	O
,	O
users	O
must	O
decide	O
what	O
is	O
more	O
important	O
to	O
their	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
experience	O
:	O
relevance	O
and	O
speed	O
of	O
results	O
or	O
their	O
privacy	O
,	O
and	O
choose	O
a	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
accordingly	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
most	O
popular	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
collect	O
personal	O
information	O
,	O
but	O
other	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
that	O
are	O
focused	O
on	O
privacy	O
have	O
cropped	O
up	O
recently	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
have	O
been	O
several	O
well	O
publicized	O
breaches	O
of	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
user	O
privacy	O
that	O
occurred	O
with	O
companies	O
like	O
AOL	O
and	O
Yahoo	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
individuals	O
interested	O
in	O
preserving	O
their	O
privacy	O
,	O
there	O
are	O
options	O
available	O
to	O
them	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
using	O
software	O
like	O
Tor	B-Application
which	O
makes	O
the	O
user	O
's	O
location	O
and	O
personal	O
information	O
anonymous	O
or	O
using	O
a	O
privacy	O
focused	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
generally	O
publish	O
privacy	O
policies	O
to	O
inform	O
users	O
about	O
what	O
data	O
of	O
theirs	O
may	O
be	O
collected	O
and	O
what	O
purposes	O
it	O
may	O
be	O
used	O
for	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
these	O
policies	O
may	O
be	O
an	O
attempt	O
at	O
transparency	O
by	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
,	O
many	O
people	O
never	O
read	O
them	O
and	O
are	O
therefore	O
unaware	O
of	O
how	O
much	O
of	O
their	O
private	O
information	O
,	O
like	O
passwords	O
and	O
saved	O
files	O
,	O
are	O
collected	O
from	O
cookies	B-Application
and	O
may	O
be	O
logged	O
and	O
kept	O
by	O
the	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Privacy	O
minded	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
,	O
such	O
as	O
DuckDuckGo	B-Application
,	O
state	O
in	O
their	O
privacy	O
policies	O
that	O
they	O
collect	O
much	O
less	O
data	O
than	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
such	O
as	O
Google	B-Application
or	O
Yahoo	B-Application
,	O
and	O
may	O
not	O
collect	O
any	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
of	O
2008	O
,	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
were	O
not	O
in	O
the	O
business	O
of	O
selling	O
user	O
data	O
to	O
third	O
parties	O
,	O
though	O
they	O
do	O
note	O
in	O
their	O
privacy	O
policies	O
that	O
they	O
comply	O
with	O
government	O
subpoenas	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Google	B-Application
,	O
founded	O
in	O
1998	O
,	O
is	O
the	O
most	O
widely	O
used	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
,	O
receiving	O
billions	O
and	O
billions	O
of	O
search	O
queries	O
every	O
month	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Google	B-Application
logs	O
all	O
search	O
terms	O
in	O
a	O
database	O
along	O
with	O
the	O
date	O
and	O
time	O
of	O
search	O
,	O
browser	O
and	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
,	O
IP	B-Protocol
address	I-Protocol
of	O
user	O
,	O
the	B-Application
Google	I-Application
cookie	B-Application
,	O
and	O
the	O
URL	O
that	O
shows	O
the	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
and	O
search	O
query	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
privacy	O
policy	O
of	O
Google	B-Application
states	O
that	O
they	O
pass	O
user	O
data	O
on	O
to	O
various	O
affiliates	O
,	O
subsidiaries	O
,	O
and	O
"	O
trusted	O
"	O
business	O
partners	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Yahoo	B-Application
,	O
founded	O
in	O
1995	O
,	O
also	O
collects	O
user	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
a	O
well-known	O
fact	O
that	O
users	O
do	O
not	O
read	O
privacy	O
policies	O
,	O
even	O
for	O
services	O
that	O
they	O
use	O
daily	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
Yahoo	B-Application
!	I-Application
</s>
<s>
Mail	O
and	O
Gmail	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
means	O
that	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
and	O
email	O
companies	O
like	O
Google	B-Application
and	O
Yahoo	B-Application
are	O
technically	O
able	O
to	O
keep	O
up	O
the	O
practice	O
of	O
targeting	O
advertisements	O
based	O
on	O
email	O
content	O
since	O
they	O
declare	O
that	O
they	O
do	O
so	O
in	O
their	O
privacy	O
policies	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
study	O
was	O
done	O
to	O
see	O
how	O
much	O
consumers	O
cared	O
about	O
privacy	O
policies	O
of	O
Google	B-Application
,	O
specifically	O
Gmail	B-Application
,	O
and	O
their	O
detail	O
,	O
and	O
it	O
determined	O
that	O
users	O
often	O
thought	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
practices	O
were	O
somewhat	O
intrusive	O
but	O
that	O
users	O
would	O
not	O
often	O
be	O
willing	O
to	O
counteract	O
this	O
by	O
paying	O
a	O
premium	O
for	O
their	O
privacy	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
DuckDuckGo	B-Application
,	O
founded	O
in	O
2008	O
,	O
claims	O
to	O
be	O
privacy	O
focused	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
DuckDuckGo	B-Application
does	O
not	O
collect	O
or	O
share	O
any	O
personal	O
information	O
of	O
users	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
IP	B-Protocol
addresses	I-Protocol
or	O
cookies	B-Application
,	O
which	O
other	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
usually	O
do	O
log	O
and	O
keep	O
for	O
some	O
time	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Similarly	O
privacy	O
oriented	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
include	O
Startpage	B-Application
and	O
Disconnect	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Most	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
can	O
,	O
and	O
do	O
,	O
collect	O
personal	O
information	O
about	O
their	O
users	O
according	O
to	O
their	O
own	O
privacy	O
policies	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
user	O
data	O
could	O
be	O
anything	O
from	O
location	O
information	O
to	O
cookies	B-Application
,	O
IP	B-Protocol
addresses	I-Protocol
,	O
search	O
query	O
histories	O
,	O
click-through	O
history	O
,	O
and	O
online	B-Protocol
fingerprints	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
the	O
data	O
collected	O
by	O
Google	B-Application
on	O
its	O
users	O
is	O
retained	O
for	O
up	O
to	O
9	O
months	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
data	O
is	O
used	O
for	O
various	O
reasons	O
such	O
as	O
optimizing	O
and	O
personalizing	O
search	B-Application
results	I-Application
for	O
users	O
,	O
targeting	O
advertising	O
,	O
and	O
trying	O
to	O
protect	O
users	O
from	O
scams	O
and	O
phishing	O
attacks	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Such	O
data	O
can	O
be	O
collected	O
even	O
when	O
a	O
user	O
is	O
not	O
logged	O
in	O
to	O
their	O
account	O
or	O
when	O
using	O
a	O
different	O
IP	B-Protocol
address	I-Protocol
by	O
using	O
cookies	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
What	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
often	O
do	O
once	O
they	O
have	O
collected	O
information	O
about	O
a	O
user	O
's	O
habits	O
is	O
to	O
create	O
a	O
profile	O
of	O
them	O
,	O
which	O
helps	O
the	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
decide	O
which	O
links	O
to	O
show	O
for	O
different	O
search	O
queries	O
submitted	O
by	O
that	O
user	O
or	O
which	O
ads	O
to	O
target	O
them	O
with	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Using	O
this	O
,	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
can	O
refine	O
their	O
profiling	O
models	O
to	O
more	O
accurately	O
predict	O
what	O
any	O
given	O
user	O
may	O
want	O
to	O
click	O
on	O
by	O
doing	O
A/B	O
testing	O
of	O
results	O
offered	O
to	O
users	O
and	O
measuring	O
the	O
reactions	O
of	O
users	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Companies	O
like	O
Google	B-Application
,	O
Netflix	O
,	O
YouTube	B-General_Concept
,	O
and	O
Amazon	B-Application
have	O
all	O
started	O
personalizing	O
results	O
more	O
and	O
more	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
notable	O
example	O
is	O
how	O
Google	B-Application
Scholar	O
takes	O
into	O
account	O
the	O
publication	O
history	O
of	O
a	O
user	O
in	O
order	O
to	O
produce	O
results	O
it	O
deems	O
relevant	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Personalization	O
also	O
occurs	O
when	O
Amazon	B-Application
recommends	O
books	O
or	O
when	O
IMDb	O
suggests	O
movies	O
by	O
using	O
previously	O
collected	O
information	O
about	O
a	O
user	O
to	O
predict	O
their	O
tastes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
internet	O
advertising	O
company	O
DoubleClick	O
,	O
which	O
helps	O
advertisers	O
target	O
users	O
for	O
specific	O
ads	O
,	O
was	O
bought	O
by	O
Google	B-Application
in	O
2008	O
and	O
was	O
a	O
subsidiary	O
until	O
June	O
2018	O
,	O
when	O
Google	B-Application
rebranded	O
and	O
merged	O
DoubleClick	O
into	O
its	O
Google	B-Protocol
Marketing	I-Protocol
Platform	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
DoubleClick	O
worked	O
by	O
depositing	O
cookies	B-Application
on	O
user	O
's	O
computers	O
that	O
would	O
track	O
sites	O
they	O
visited	O
with	O
DoubleClick	O
ads	O
on	O
them	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
was	O
a	O
privacy	O
concern	O
when	O
Google	B-Application
was	O
in	O
the	O
process	O
of	O
acquiring	O
DoubleClick	O
that	O
the	O
acquisition	O
would	O
let	O
Google	B-Application
create	O
even	O
more	O
comprehensive	O
profiles	O
of	O
its	O
users	O
since	O
they	O
would	O
be	O
collecting	O
data	O
about	O
search	O
queries	O
and	O
additionally	O
tracking	O
websites	O
visited	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1994	O
,	O
a	O
conflict	O
between	O
selling	O
ads	O
and	O
relevance	O
of	O
results	O
on	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
began	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Besides	O
ad	O
targeting	O
and	O
personalization	O
,	O
Google	B-Application
also	O
uses	O
data	O
collected	O
on	O
users	O
to	O
improve	O
the	O
quality	O
of	O
searches	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Search	O
result	O
click	O
histories	O
and	O
query	O
logs	O
are	O
crucial	O
in	O
helping	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
optimize	O
search	B-Application
results	I-Application
for	O
individual	O
users	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Search	O
logs	O
also	O
help	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
in	O
the	O
development	O
of	O
the	O
algorithms	O
they	O
use	O
to	O
return	O
results	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
well	O
known	O
PageRank	B-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
example	O
of	O
this	O
is	O
how	O
Google	B-Application
uses	O
databases	O
of	O
information	O
to	O
refine	O
Google	B-Application
Spell	O
Checker	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
fact	O
,	O
EPIC	O
filed	O
a	O
complaint	O
in	O
2007	O
with	O
the	O
Federal	O
Trade	O
Commission	O
claiming	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
should	O
not	O
be	O
able	O
to	O
acquire	O
DoubleClick	O
on	O
the	O
grounds	O
that	O
it	O
would	O
compromise	O
user	O
privacy	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Experiments	O
have	O
been	O
done	O
to	O
examine	O
consumer	O
behavior	O
when	O
given	O
information	O
on	O
the	O
privacy	O
of	O
retailers	O
by	O
integrating	O
privacy	O
ratings	O
with	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Researchers	O
used	O
a	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
for	O
the	O
treatment	O
group	O
called	O
Privacy	O
Finder	O
,	O
which	O
scans	O
websites	O
and	O
automatically	O
generates	O
an	O
icon	O
to	O
show	O
the	O
level	O
of	O
privacy	O
the	O
site	O
will	O
give	O
the	O
consumer	O
as	O
it	O
compares	O
to	O
the	O
privacy	O
policies	O
that	O
consumer	O
has	O
specified	O
that	O
they	O
prefer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
results	O
of	O
the	O
experiment	O
were	O
that	O
subjects	O
in	O
the	O
treatment	O
group	O
,	O
those	O
who	O
were	O
using	O
a	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
that	O
indicated	O
privacy	O
levels	O
of	O
websites	O
,	O
purchased	O
products	O
from	O
websites	O
that	O
gave	O
them	O
higher	O
levels	O
of	O
privacy	O
,	O
whereas	O
the	O
participants	O
in	O
the	O
control	O
groups	O
opted	O
for	O
the	O
products	O
that	O
were	O
simply	O
the	O
cheapest	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
individuals	O
and	O
scholars	O
have	O
recognized	O
the	O
ethical	O
concerns	O
regarding	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
privacy	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
collection	O
of	O
user	O
data	O
by	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
can	O
be	O
viewed	O
as	O
a	O
positive	O
practice	O
because	O
it	O
allows	O
the	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
to	O
personalize	O
results	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Also	O
,	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
are	O
generally	O
free	O
of	O
charge	O
for	O
users	O
and	O
can	O
remain	O
afloat	O
because	O
one	O
of	O
their	O
main	O
sources	O
of	O
revenue	O
is	O
advertising	O
,	O
which	O
can	O
be	O
more	O
effective	O
when	O
targeted	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
can	O
make	O
money	O
using	O
targeted	O
advertising	O
because	O
advertisers	O
are	O
willing	O
to	O
pay	O
a	O
premium	O
to	O
present	O
their	O
ads	O
to	O
the	O
most	O
receptive	O
consumers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Also	O
,	O
when	O
a	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
collects	O
and	O
catalogs	O
large	O
amounts	O
of	O
data	O
about	O
its	O
users	O
,	O
there	O
is	O
the	O
potential	O
for	O
it	O
to	O
be	O
leaked	O
accidentally	O
or	O
breached	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
government	O
can	O
also	O
subpoena	O
user	O
data	O
from	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
when	O
they	O
have	O
databases	O
of	O
it	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
major	O
controversy	O
regarding	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
privacy	I-Application
was	O
the	O
AOL	B-Application
search	I-Application
data	O
leak	O
of	O
2006	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Both	O
Google	B-Application
and	O
Yahoo	B-Application
were	O
subjects	O
of	O
a	O
Chinese	O
hack	O
in	O
2010	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
Google	B-Application
responded	O
to	O
the	O
situation	O
seriously	O
by	O
hiring	O
new	O
cybersecurity	O
engineers	O
and	O
investing	O
heavily	O
into	O
securing	O
user	O
data	O
,	O
Yahoo	B-Application
took	O
a	O
much	O
more	O
lax	O
approach	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Google	B-Application
started	O
paying	O
hackers	O
to	O
find	O
vulnerabilities	O
in	O
2010	O
while	O
it	O
took	O
Yahoo	B-Application
until	O
2013	O
to	O
follow	O
suit	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Yahoo	B-Application
was	O
also	O
identified	O
in	O
the	O
Snowden	O
data	O
leaks	O
as	O
a	O
common	O
hacking	O
target	O
for	O
spies	O
of	O
various	O
nations	O
,	O
and	O
Yahoo	B-Application
still	O
did	O
not	O
give	O
its	O
newly	O
hired	O
chief	O
information	O
security	O
officer	O
the	O
resources	O
to	O
really	O
effect	O
change	O
within	O
the	O
company	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2012	O
,	O
Yahoo	B-Application
hired	O
Marissa	O
Mayer	O
,	O
previously	O
a	O
Google	B-Application
employee	O
,	O
to	O
be	O
the	O
new	O
CEO	O
,	O
but	O
she	O
chose	O
not	O
to	O
invest	O
much	O
in	O
the	O
security	O
infrastructure	O
of	O
Yahoo	B-Application
and	O
went	O
as	O
far	O
as	O
to	O
refuse	O
the	O
implementation	O
of	O
a	O
basic	O
and	O
standard	O
security	O
measure	O
to	O
force	O
the	O
reset	O
of	O
all	O
passwords	O
after	O
a	O
breach	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Yahoo	B-Application
is	O
known	O
for	O
being	O
the	O
subject	O
of	O
multiple	O
breaches	O
and	O
hacks	O
that	O
have	O
compromised	O
large	O
amounts	O
of	O
user	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
of	O
late	O
2016	O
,	O
Yahoo	B-Application
had	O
announced	O
that	O
at	O
least	O
1.5	O
billion	O
user	O
accounts	O
had	O
been	O
breached	O
during	O
2013	O
and	O
2014	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Yahoo	B-Application
made	O
a	O
statement	O
saying	O
that	O
their	O
breaches	O
were	O
a	O
result	O
of	O
state	O
sponsored	O
actors	O
,	O
and	O
in	O
2017	O
,	O
two	O
Russian	O
intelligence	O
officers	O
were	O
indicted	O
by	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
Department	O
of	O
Justice	O
as	O
part	O
of	O
a	O
conspiracy	O
to	O
hack	O
Yahoo	B-Application
and	O
steal	O
user	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
of	O
2016	O
,	O
the	O
Yahoo	B-Application
breaches	O
of	O
2013	O
and	O
2014	O
were	O
the	O
largest	O
of	O
all	O
time	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
October	O
2018	O
,	O
there	O
was	O
a	O
Google+	B-Application
data	O
breach	O
that	O
potentially	O
affected	O
about	O
500,000	O
accounts	O
which	O
led	O
to	O
the	O
shutdown	O
of	O
the	O
Google+	B-Application
platform	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
government	O
may	O
want	O
to	O
subpoena	O
user	O
data	O
from	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
for	O
any	O
number	O
of	O
reasons	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
why	O
it	O
a	O
big	O
threat	O
to	O
user	O
privacy	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2006	O
,	O
they	O
wanted	O
it	O
as	O
part	O
of	O
their	O
defense	O
of	O
COPA	O
,	O
and	O
only	O
Google	B-Application
refused	O
to	O
comply	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Whatever	O
the	O
reason	O
,	O
it	O
is	O
clear	O
that	O
the	O
fact	O
that	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
do	O
create	O
and	O
maintain	O
these	O
databases	O
of	O
user	O
data	O
is	O
what	O
makes	O
it	O
possible	O
for	O
the	O
government	O
to	O
access	O
it	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Another	O
concern	O
regarding	O
government	O
access	O
to	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
user	O
data	O
is	O
"	O
function	O
creep	O
"	O
,	O
a	O
term	O
that	O
here	O
refers	O
to	O
how	O
data	O
originally	O
collected	O
by	O
the	O
government	O
for	O
national	O
security	O
purposes	O
may	O
eventually	O
be	O
used	O
for	O
other	O
purposes	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
debt	O
collection	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
protections	O
for	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
user	O
privacy	O
have	O
started	O
developing	O
recently	O
,	O
the	O
government	O
has	O
increasingly	O
been	O
on	O
the	O
side	O
that	O
wants	O
to	O
ensure	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
retain	O
data	O
,	O
making	O
users	O
less	O
protected	O
and	O
their	O
data	O
more	O
available	O
for	O
anyone	O
to	O
subpoena	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
different	O
,	O
although	O
popular	O
,	O
route	O
for	O
a	O
privacy	O
centered	O
user	O
to	O
take	O
is	O
to	O
simply	O
start	O
using	O
a	O
privacy	O
oriented	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
,	O
such	O
as	O
DuckDuckGo	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
maintains	O
the	O
privacy	O
of	O
its	O
users	O
by	O
not	O
collecting	O
data	O
on	O
or	O
tracking	O
its	O
users	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
this	O
may	O
sound	O
simple	O
,	O
users	O
must	O
take	O
into	O
account	O
the	O
trade-off	O
between	O
privacy	O
and	O
relevant	O
results	O
when	O
deciding	O
to	O
switch	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Results	O
to	O
search	O
queries	O
can	O
be	O
very	O
different	O
when	O
the	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
has	O
no	O
search	O
history	O
to	O
aid	O
it	O
in	O
personalization	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Mozilla	B-Operating_System
is	O
known	O
for	O
its	O
beliefs	O
in	O
protecting	O
user	O
privacy	O
on	O
Firefox	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Mozilla	B-Application
Firefox	I-Application
users	O
have	O
the	O
capability	O
to	O
delete	O
the	O
tracking	O
cookie	B-Application
that	O
Google	B-Application
places	O
on	O
their	O
computer	O
,	O
making	O
it	O
much	O
harder	O
for	O
Google	B-Application
to	O
group	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Firefox	B-Application
also	O
has	O
a	O
button	O
called	O
"	O
Clear	O
Private	O
Data	O
"	O
,	O
which	O
allows	O
users	O
to	O
have	O
more	O
control	O
over	O
their	O
settings	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Internet	B-Application
Explorer	I-Application
users	O
have	O
this	O
option	O
as	O
well	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
using	O
a	O
browser	O
like	O
Google	B-Application
Chrome	I-Application
or	O
Safari	B-Application
,	O
users	O
also	O
have	O
the	O
option	O
to	O
browse	O
in	O
"	O
incognito	O
"	O
or	O
"	O
private	O
browsing	O
"	O
modes	O
respectively	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
in	O
these	O
modes	O
,	O
the	O
user	O
's	O
browsing	B-Protocol
history	I-Protocol
and	O
cookies	B-Application
are	O
not	O
collected	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	B-Application
Google	I-Application
,	O
Yahoo	O
!,	O
AOL	O
,	O
and	O
MSN	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
all	O
allow	O
users	O
to	O
opt	O
out	O
of	O
the	O
behavioral	O
targeting	O
they	O
use	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Users	O
can	O
also	O
delete	O
search	O
and	O
browsing	B-Protocol
history	I-Protocol
at	O
any	O
time	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Ask.com	B-Application
search	I-Application
engine	O
also	O
has	O
AskEraser	O
,	O
which	O
,	O
when	O
used	O
,	O
purges	O
user	O
data	O
from	O
their	O
servers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Deleting	O
a	O
user	O
's	O
profile	O
and	O
history	O
of	O
data	O
from	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
logs	O
also	O
helps	O
protect	O
user	O
privacy	O
in	O
the	O
event	O
a	O
government	O
agency	O
wants	O
to	O
subpoena	O
it	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
important	O
to	O
note	O
that	O
simply	O
deleting	O
your	O
browsing	B-Protocol
history	I-Protocol
does	O
not	O
delete	O
all	O
the	O
information	O
the	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
has	O
on	O
you	O
,	O
some	O
companies	O
do	O
not	O
delete	O
the	O
data	O
associated	O
with	O
your	O
account	O
when	O
you	O
clear	O
your	O
browsing	B-Protocol
history	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
companies	O
that	O
do	O
delete	O
user	O
data	O
,	O
they	O
usually	O
do	O
not	O
delete	O
all	O
of	O
it	O
keeping	O
records	O
of	O
how	O
you	O
used	O
the	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
their	O
plan	O
,	O
each	O
user	O
would	O
belong	O
to	O
a	O
group	O
,	O
or	O
network	O
,	O
of	O
people	O
who	O
all	O
use	O
the	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
way	O
,	O
the	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
cannot	O
make	O
a	O
useful	O
profile	O
of	O
any	O
individual	O
user	O
in	O
the	O
group	O
since	O
it	O
has	O
no	O
way	O
to	O
discern	O
which	O
query	O
actually	O
belonged	O
to	O
each	O
user	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
After	O
the	B-Application
Google	I-Application
Spain	O
v	O
.	O
AEPD	O
case	O
,	O
it	O
was	O
established	O
that	O
people	O
had	O
the	O
right	O
to	O
request	O
that	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
delete	O
personal	O
information	O
from	O
their	O
search	B-Application
results	I-Application
in	O
compliance	O
with	O
other	O
European	O
data	O
protection	O
regulations	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
process	O
of	O
simply	O
removing	O
certain	O
search	B-Application
results	I-Application
is	O
called	O
de-listing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
effective	O
in	O
protecting	O
the	O
privacy	O
of	O
those	O
who	O
wish	O
information	O
about	O
them	O
to	O
not	O
be	O
accessed	O
by	O
anyone	O
using	O
a	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
,	O
it	O
does	O
not	O
necessarily	O
protect	O
the	O
contextual	O
integrity	O
of	O
search	B-Application
results	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
data	O
that	O
is	O
not	O
highly	O
sensitive	O
or	O
compromising	O
,	O
reordering	O
search	B-Application
results	I-Application
is	O
another	O
option	O
where	O
people	O
would	O
be	O
able	O
to	O
rank	O
how	O
relevant	O
certain	O
data	O
is	O
at	O
any	O
given	O
point	O
in	O
time	O
,	O
which	O
would	O
then	O
alter	O
results	O
given	O
when	O
someone	O
searched	O
their	O
name	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
sort	O
of	O
DIY	O
option	O
for	O
privacy	O
minded	O
users	O
is	O
to	O
use	O
a	O
software	O
like	O
Tor	B-Application
,	O
which	O
is	O
an	O
anonymity	O
network	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Tor	B-Application
functions	O
by	O
encrypting	O
user	O
data	O
and	O
routing	O
queries	O
through	O
thousands	O
of	O
relays	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
this	O
process	O
is	O
effective	O
at	O
masking	O
IP	B-Protocol
addresses	I-Protocol
,	O
it	O
can	O
slow	O
the	O
speed	O
of	O
results	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
Tor	B-Application
may	O
work	O
to	O
mask	O
IP	B-Protocol
addresses	I-Protocol
,	O
there	O
have	O
also	O
been	O
studies	O
that	O
show	O
that	O
a	O
simulated	O
attacker	O
software	O
could	O
still	O
match	O
search	O
queries	O
to	O
users	O
even	O
when	O
anonymized	O
using	O
Tor	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Unlinkability	O
and	O
indistinguishability	O
are	O
also	O
well-known	O
solutions	O
to	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
privacy	I-Application
,	O
although	O
they	O
have	O
proven	O
somewhat	O
ineffective	O
in	O
actually	O
providing	O
users	O
with	O
anonymity	O
from	O
their	O
search	O
queries	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Both	O
unlinkability	O
and	O
indistinguishability	O
solutions	O
try	O
to	O
anonymize	O
search	O
queries	O
from	O
the	O
user	O
who	O
made	O
them	O
,	O
therefore	O
making	O
it	O
impossible	O
for	O
the	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
to	O
definitively	O
link	O
a	O
specific	O
query	O
with	O
a	O
specific	O
user	O
and	O
create	O
a	O
useful	O
profile	O
on	O
them	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Another	O
way	O
for	O
the	O
user	O
to	O
hide	O
information	O
such	O
as	O
their	O
IP	B-Protocol
address	I-Protocol
from	O
the	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
,	O
which	O
is	O
an	O
unlinkability	O
solution	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
is	O
perhaps	O
more	O
simple	O
and	O
easy	O
for	O
the	O
user	O
because	O
any	O
user	O
can	O
do	O
this	O
by	O
using	O
a	O
VPN	B-Application
,	O
although	O
it	O
still	O
does	O
not	O
guarantee	O
total	O
privacy	O
from	O
the	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
is	O
an	O
indistinguishability	O
solution	O
,	O
and	O
it	O
functions	O
by	O
obscuring	O
the	O
real	O
searches	O
a	O
user	O
makes	O
so	O
that	O
a	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
cannot	O
tell	O
which	O
queries	O
are	O
the	O
software	O
's	O
and	O
which	O
are	O
the	O
user	O
's	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Then	O
,	O
it	O
is	O
more	O
difficult	O
for	O
the	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
to	O
use	O
the	O
data	O
it	O
collects	O
on	O
a	O
user	O
to	O
do	O
things	O
like	O
target	O
ads	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Being	O
that	O
the	O
internet	O
and	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
are	O
relatively	O
recent	O
creations	O
,	O
no	O
solid	O
legal	O
framework	O
for	O
privacy	O
protections	O
in	O
terms	O
of	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
has	O
been	O
put	O
in	O
place	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
scholars	O
do	O
write	O
about	O
the	O
implications	O
of	O
existing	O
laws	O
on	O
privacy	O
in	O
general	O
to	O
inform	O
what	O
right	O
to	O
privacy	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
users	O
have	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
this	O
is	O
a	O
developing	O
field	O
of	O
law	O
,	O
there	O
have	O
been	O
several	O
lawsuits	O
with	O
respect	O
to	O
the	O
privacy	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
are	O
expected	O
to	O
afford	O
to	O
their	O
users	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Confrontation	O
Clause	O
of	O
the	O
Sixth	O
Amendment	O
is	O
applicable	O
to	O
the	O
protection	O
of	O
big	B-Application
data	I-Application
from	O
government	O
surveillance	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
If	O
a	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
company	O
like	O
Google	B-Application
gives	O
information	O
to	O
the	O
government	O
to	O
prosecute	O
a	O
case	O
,	O
these	O
witnesses	O
are	O
the	B-Application
Google	I-Application
employees	O
involved	O
in	O
the	O
process	O
of	O
selecting	O
which	O
data	O
to	O
hand	O
over	O
to	O
the	O
government	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
specific	O
employees	O
who	O
must	O
be	O
available	O
to	O
be	O
confronted	O
under	O
the	O
Confrontation	O
Clause	O
are	O
the	O
producer	O
who	O
decides	O
what	O
data	O
is	O
relevant	O
and	O
provides	O
the	O
government	O
with	O
what	O
they	O
've	O
asked	O
for	O
,	O
the	B-Application
Google	I-Application
analyst	O
who	O
certifies	O
the	O
proper	O
collection	O
and	O
transmission	O
of	O
data	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
custodian	O
who	O
keeps	O
records	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
data	O
these	O
employees	O
of	O
Google	B-Application
curate	O
for	O
trial	O
use	O
is	O
then	O
thought	O
of	O
as	O
testimonial	O
statement	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
overall	O
effectiveness	O
of	O
the	O
Confrontation	O
Clause	O
on	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
privacy	I-Application
is	O
that	O
it	O
places	O
a	O
check	O
on	O
how	O
the	O
government	O
can	O
use	O
big	B-Application
data	I-Application
and	O
provides	O
defendants	O
with	O
protection	O
from	O
human	O
error	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
thinking	O
about	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
data	O
collected	O
about	O
users	O
,	O
the	O
way	O
telephone	O
communications	O
were	O
classified	O
under	O
Katz	O
v	O
.	O
United	O
States	O
could	O
be	O
a	O
precedent	O
for	O
how	O
it	O
should	O
be	O
handled	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
case	O
took	O
place	O
in	O
1967	O
,	O
but	O
surely	O
nowadays	O
,	O
the	O
internet	O
and	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
have	O
this	O
vital	O
role	O
in	O
private	O
communications	O
,	O
and	O
people	O
's	O
search	O
queries	O
and	O
IP	B-Protocol
addresses	I-Protocol
can	O
be	O
thought	O
of	O
as	O
analogous	O
to	O
the	O
private	O
phone	O
calls	O
placed	O
from	O
public	O
booths	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
1976	O
Supreme	O
Court	O
case	O
is	O
relevant	O
to	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
privacy	I-Application
because	O
the	O
court	O
ruled	O
that	O
when	O
third	O
parties	O
gathered	O
or	O
had	O
information	O
given	O
to	O
them	O
,	O
the	O
Fourth	O
Amendment	O
was	O
not	O
applicable	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
thinking	O
about	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
privacy	I-Application
,	O
this	O
is	O
important	O
because	O
people	O
willingly	O
provide	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
with	O
information	O
in	O
the	O
form	O
of	O
their	O
search	O
queries	O
and	O
various	O
other	O
data	O
points	O
that	O
they	O
may	O
not	O
realize	O
are	O
being	O
collected	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Similarly	O
,	O
the	O
current	O
legal	O
structure	O
regarding	O
privacy	O
and	O
assumption	O
of	O
risk	O
can	O
be	O
interpreted	O
to	O
mean	O
that	O
users	O
of	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
cannot	O
expect	O
privacy	O
in	O
regards	O
to	O
the	O
data	O
they	O
communicate	O
by	O
using	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
What	O
the	O
EPCA	O
does	O
not	O
do	O
,	O
unsurprisingly	O
because	O
it	O
was	O
enacted	O
before	O
internet	O
usage	O
became	O
a	O
common	O
occurrence	O
,	O
is	O
say	O
anything	O
about	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
privacy	I-Application
and	O
the	O
protections	O
users	O
are	O
afforded	O
in	O
terms	O
of	O
their	O
search	O
queries	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
To	O
do	O
this	O
,	O
the	O
government	O
subpoenaed	O
search	O
data	O
from	O
Google	B-Application
,	O
AOL	O
,	O
Yahoo	O
!,	O
and	O
Microsoft	O
to	O
use	O
in	O
its	O
analysis	O
and	O
to	O
show	O
that	O
people	O
search	O
information	O
that	O
is	O
potentially	O
compromising	O
to	O
children	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Of	O
the	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
the	O
government	O
subpoenaed	O
to	O
produce	O
search	O
queries	O
and	O
URLs	O
,	O
only	O
Google	B-Application
refused	O
to	O
comply	O
with	O
the	O
government	O
,	O
even	O
after	O
the	O
request	O
was	O
reduced	O
in	O
size	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Google	B-Application
itself	O
claimed	O
that	O
handing	O
over	O
these	O
logs	O
was	O
to	O
hand	O
over	O
personally	O
identifiable	O
information	O
and	O
user	O
identities	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
court	O
ruled	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
had	O
to	O
hand	O
over	O
50,000	O
randomly	O
selected	O
URLs	O
to	O
the	O
government	O
but	O
not	O
search	O
queries	O
because	O
that	O
could	O
seed	O
public	O
distrust	O
of	O
the	O
company	O
and	O
therefore	O
compromise	O
its	O
business	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
European	O
Court	O
of	O
Justice	O
ruled	O
in	O
2014	O
that	O
its	O
citizens	O
had	O
the	O
"	O
Right	B-Application
to	I-Application
Be	I-Application
Forgotten	I-Application
"	O
in	O
the	B-Application
Google	I-Application
Spain	O
SL	O
v	O
.	O
Agencia	O
Española	O
de	O
Protección	O
de	O
Datos	O
case	O
,	O
which	O
meant	O
that	O
they	O
had	O
the	O
right	O
to	O
demand	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
wipe	O
any	O
data	O
collected	O
on	O
them	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
this	O
single	O
court	O
decision	O
did	O
not	O
directly	O
establish	O
the	O
"	O
right	B-Application
to	I-Application
be	I-Application
forgotten	I-Application
"	O
,	O
the	O
court	O
interpreted	O
existing	O
law	O
to	O
mean	O
that	O
people	O
had	O
the	O
right	O
to	O
request	O
that	O
some	O
information	O
about	O
them	O
be	O
wiped	O
from	O
search	B-Application
results	I-Application
provided	O
by	O
search	B-Application
engine	I-Application
companies	O
like	O
Google	B-Application
.	I-Application
</s>
<s>
The	O
background	O
of	O
this	O
case	O
is	O
that	O
one	O
Spanish	O
citizen	O
,	O
Mario	O
Costeja	O
Gonzalez	O
,	O
set	O
out	O
to	O
erase	O
himself	O
from	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
search	B-Application
results	I-Application
because	O
they	O
revealed	O
potentially	O
compromising	O
information	O
about	O
his	O
past	O
debts	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
ruling	O
in	O
favor	O
of	O
Mario	O
Costeja	O
Gonzalez	O
,	O
the	O
court	O
noted	O
that	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
can	O
significantly	O
impact	O
the	O
privacy	O
rights	O
of	O
many	O
people	O
and	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
controlled	O
the	O
dissemination	O
of	O
personal	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
court	O
decision	O
did	O
not	O
claim	O
that	O
all	O
citizens	O
should	O
be	O
able	O
to	O
request	O
that	O
information	O
about	O
them	O
be	O
completely	O
wiped	O
from	O
Google	B-Application
at	O
any	O
time	O
,	O
but	O
rather	O
that	O
there	O
are	O
specific	O
types	O
of	O
information	O
,	O
particularly	O
information	O
that	O
is	O
obstructing	O
one	O
's	O
right	B-Application
to	I-Application
be	I-Application
forgotten	I-Application
,	O
that	O
do	O
not	O
need	O
to	O
be	O
so	O
easily	O
accessible	O
on	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
.	O
</s>
