<s>
Remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
in	O
geology	O
is	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
used	O
in	O
the	O
geological	O
sciences	O
as	O
a	O
data	O
acquisition	O
method	O
complementary	O
to	O
field	O
observation	O
,	O
because	O
it	O
allows	O
mapping	O
of	O
geological	O
characteristics	O
of	O
regions	O
without	O
physical	O
contact	O
with	O
the	O
areas	O
being	O
explored	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
About	O
one-fourth	O
of	O
the	O
Earth	O
's	O
total	O
surface	O
area	O
is	O
exposed	O
land	O
where	O
information	O
is	O
ready	O
to	O
be	O
extracted	O
from	O
detailed	O
earth	O
observation	O
via	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
is	O
conducted	O
via	O
detection	O
of	O
electromagnetic	O
radiation	O
by	O
sensors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
radiation	O
can	O
be	O
naturally	O
sourced	O
(	O
passive	B-Application
remote	I-Application
sensing	I-Application
)	O
,	O
or	O
produced	O
by	O
machines	O
(	O
active	B-Application
remote	I-Application
sensing	I-Application
)	O
and	O
reflected	O
off	O
of	O
the	O
Earth	O
surface	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
spectral	O
fingerprint	O
is	O
governed	O
by	O
the	O
physio-chemical	O
properties	O
of	O
the	O
surface	O
of	O
the	O
target	O
object	O
and	O
therefore	O
helps	O
mineral	O
identification	O
and	O
hence	O
geological	O
mapping	O
,	O
for	O
example	O
by	O
hyperspectral	B-Application
imaging	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Second	O
,	O
the	O
two-way	O
travel	O
time	O
of	O
radiation	O
from	O
and	O
back	O
to	O
the	O
sensor	O
can	O
calculate	O
the	O
distance	O
in	O
active	B-Application
remote	I-Application
sensing	I-Application
systems	O
,	O
for	O
example	O
,	O
Interferometric	O
synthetic-aperture	B-Application
radar	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
data	O
can	O
help	O
studies	O
involving	O
geological	O
mapping	O
,	O
geological	O
hazards	O
and	O
economic	O
geology	O
(	O
i.e.	O
,	O
exploration	O
for	O
minerals	O
,	O
petroleum	O
,	O
etc	O
.	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
of	O
proxies	O
for	O
geology	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
soils	O
and	O
vegetation	O
that	O
preferentially	O
grows	O
above	O
different	O
types	O
of	O
rocks	O
,	O
can	O
also	O
help	O
infer	O
the	O
underlying	O
geological	O
patterns	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
data	O
is	O
often	O
visualized	O
using	O
Geographical	B-Application
Information	I-Application
System	I-Application
(	O
GIS	B-Application
)	O
tools	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Such	O
tools	O
permit	O
a	O
range	O
of	O
quantitative	O
analyses	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
using	O
different	O
wavelengths	O
of	O
collected	O
data	O
sets	O
in	O
various	O
Red-Green-Blue	O
configurations	O
to	O
produce	O
false	B-Application
color	I-Application
imagery	O
to	O
reveal	O
key	O
features	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Thus	O
,	O
image	B-Algorithm
processing	I-Algorithm
is	O
an	O
important	O
step	O
to	O
decipher	O
parameters	O
from	O
the	O
collected	O
image	O
and	O
to	O
extract	O
information	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
,	O
the	O
electromagnetic	O
radiation	O
acts	O
as	O
the	O
information	O
carrier	O
,	O
with	O
a	O
distance	O
of	O
tens	O
to	O
thousands	O
of	O
kilometers	O
distance	O
between	O
the	O
sensor	O
and	O
the	O
target	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Geophysical	O
methods	O
,	O
for	O
instance	O
Sonar	B-Application
and	O
acoustic	O
methods	O
,	O
shares	O
similar	O
properties	O
with	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
but	O
electromagnetic	O
wave	O
is	O
not	O
the	O
sole	O
medium	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Geotechnical	O
instrumentations	O
,	O
for	O
example	O
piezometer	O
,	O
tiltmeter	O
and	O
Global	O
Positioning	O
System	O
(	O
GPS	O
)	O
,	O
on	O
the	O
other	O
hand	O
,	O
often	O
refer	O
to	O
instruments	O
installed	O
to	O
measure	O
discrete	O
point	O
data	O
,	O
compared	O
to	O
imagery	O
in	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
,	O
two	O
main	O
variables	O
are	O
measured	O
in	O
a	O
typical	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
system	O
:	O
the	O
radiance	B-Application
(	O
or	O
intensity	O
)	O
and	O
time	O
of	O
arrival	O
for	O
active	O
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
radiance	B-Application
(	O
i.e.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
thermal	O
infrared	O
(	O
TIR	O
)	O
region	O
measures	O
mainly	O
emission	O
while	O
microwave	O
region	O
record	O
backscattering	B-Algorithm
portion	O
of	O
reflection	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
radiance	B-Application
is	O
determined	O
by	O
radiation-matter	O
interactions	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
governed	O
by	O
the	O
physio-chemical	O
properties	O
of	O
the	O
target	O
object	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
allows	O
application	O
in	O
ranging	O
in	O
light	O
detection	O
and	O
ranging	O
(	O
LiDAR	O
)	O
and	O
Radio	B-Application
detection	I-Application
and	I-Application
ranging	I-Application
(	O
Radar	B-Application
)	O
etc	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
simple	O
classification	O
of	O
prevailing	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
instruments	O
in	O
geology	O
,	O
modified	O
from	O
Rees	O
(	O
2013	O
)	O
in	O
accordance	O
with	O
context	O
of	O
this	O
page	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
sensor	O
could	O
be	O
spaceborne	O
(	O
carried	O
by	O
satellite	B-Application
)	O
,	O
airborne	O
(	O
carried	O
by	O
aircraft	O
,	O
or	O
most	O
recently	O
Unmanned	O
Aerial	O
Vehicle	O
(	O
UAV	O
)	O
)	O
or	O
ground-based	O
(	O
sometimes	O
called	O
proximal	O
sensing	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Data	O
acquired	O
from	O
higher	O
elevation	O
captures	O
a	O
larger	O
field	O
of	O
view/	O
spatial	O
coverage	O
,	O
but	O
the	O
resolutions	B-Algorithm
are	O
often	O
lower	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
main	O
advantage	O
of	O
employing	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
to	O
deal	O
with	O
geological	O
problem	O
is	O
that	O
it	O
provides	O
direct	O
information	O
on	O
the	O
surface	O
cover	O
using	O
a	O
synoptic	O
coverage	O
or	O
sometimes	O
stereoscopic	B-Algorithm
view	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
the	O
intensity	O
of	O
incident	O
ray	O
is	O
fixed	O
,	O
for	O
a	O
higher	O
spectral	O
resolution	O
,	O
it	O
is	O
expected	O
to	O
have	O
a	O
lower	O
spatial	O
resolution	O
(	O
one	O
pixel	B-Algorithm
represent	O
larger	O
area	O
)	O
to	O
maintain	O
an	O
up-to-standard	O
signal-to-noise	O
ratio	O
for	O
analysis	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
can	O
never	O
obtain	O
data	O
with	O
maximum	O
resolutions	B-Algorithm
in	O
all	O
spatial	O
,	O
spectral	O
and	O
radiometric	O
resolutions	B-Algorithm
due	O
to	O
these	O
constraints	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Field	O
observation	O
and	O
reconnaissance	O
remains	O
irreplaceable	O
and	O
shall	O
never	O
be	O
taken	O
over	O
completely	O
by	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
because	O
field	O
data	O
greatly	O
support	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
data	O
interpretation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
should	O
better	O
be	O
considered	O
to	O
be	O
complementary	O
which	O
aims	O
to	O
provide	O
instantaneous	O
views	O
of	O
different	O
scale	O
,	O
perspective	O
or	O
spectral	O
vision	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
instance	O
aerial	O
photographs	O
could	O
be	O
more	O
sensible	O
in	O
cloud-free	O
area	O
,	O
but	O
otherwise	O
radar	B-Application
may	O
perform	O
better	O
for	O
overcast	O
weather	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
can	O
aid	O
surficial	O
geological	O
mapping	O
and	O
landform	O
characterization	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
instrument	O
in	O
use	O
is	O
called	O
spectroradiometer	O
in	O
lab	O
and	O
imaging	O
spectrometer	O
or	O
multi-/	O
hyper-spectral	O
scanner	O
as	O
imaging	O
remote	B-Application
sensors	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Provided	O
that	O
the	O
land	O
is	O
not	O
obscured	O
by	O
dense	O
vegetation	O
,	O
some	O
characteristics	O
of	O
superficial	O
soil	O
(	O
the	O
unconsolidated	O
sedimentary	O
materials	O
covering	O
the	O
land	O
as	O
surficial	O
deposits	O
from	O
weathering	O
and	O
erosion	B-Algorithm
of	O
bedrock	O
)	O
may	O
be	O
measured	O
with	O
a	O
penetration	O
depth	O
into	O
air-soil	O
interface	O
of	O
about	O
half	O
of	O
wavelength	O
used	O
(	O
e.g.	O
</s>
<s>
Hence	O
most	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
systems	O
using	O
the	O
VNIR	O
wavelength	O
region	O
give	O
characteristics	O
of	O
surface	O
soil	O
,	O
or	O
sometimes	O
exposed	O
rock	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Specular	O
reflection	O
by	O
smooth	O
surface	O
,	O
for	O
example	O
calm	O
water	O
,	O
gives	O
little	O
backscattering	B-Algorithm
and	O
hence	O
appear	O
dark	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
lithological	O
composition	O
studies	O
,	O
lab	O
and	O
field	O
spectroscopy	O
of	O
proximal	O
and	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
can	O
help	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
mineralogy	O
is	O
identified	O
by	O
matching	O
collected	O
sample	O
with	O
spectral	O
libraries	O
by	O
statistical	O
method	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
partial	B-Algorithm
least	I-Algorithm
squares	I-Algorithm
regression	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
addition	O
to	O
high	O
signal-to-noise	O
ratio	O
(	O
>40:1	O
)	O
,	O
a	O
fine	O
spatial	O
resolution	O
,	O
which	O
limits	O
the	O
number	O
of	O
elements	O
inside	O
one	O
single	O
pixel	B-Algorithm
,	O
also	O
promotes	O
decision	O
accuracy	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Several	O
indices	O
are	O
proposed	O
for	O
rock	O
type	O
identification	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
Quartz	B-General_Concept
Index	O
,	O
Carbonate	O
Index	O
and	O
Mafic	O
Index	O
,	O
where	O
Di	O
is	O
the	O
data	O
of	O
the	O
i-th	O
band	O
in	O
ASTER	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
of	O
the	O
properties	O
of	O
soil	O
,	O
alongside	O
lithology	O
mentioned	O
above	O
,	O
are	O
retrievable	O
in	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
data	O
,	O
for	O
instance	O
Landsat	O
ETM+	O
,	O
to	O
develop	O
the	O
soil	O
horizon	O
and	O
therefore	O
aid	O
its	O
classification	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
mentioned	O
above	O
,	O
wetter	O
soil	O
is	O
brighter	O
than	O
dry	O
soil	O
in	O
radar	B-Application
image	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
short	O
wavelength	O
VNIR	O
region	O
,	O
in	O
the	O
same	O
theory	O
,	O
clayey	O
surface	O
with	O
smaller	O
grain	O
size	O
promoting	O
more	O
backscattering	B-Algorithm
should	O
give	O
higher	O
spectral	O
response	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
On	O
the	O
other	O
hand	O
,	O
radar	B-Application
is	O
sensitive	O
to	O
one	O
more	O
factor	O
:	O
dielectric	O
constant	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
water	O
has	O
a	O
high	O
dielectric	O
constant	O
,	O
it	O
has	O
high	O
reflectivity	O
and	O
hence	O
more	O
backscattering	B-Algorithm
takes	O
place	O
,	O
i.e.	O
</s>
<s>
appears	O
brighter	O
in	O
radar	B-Application
images	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Quantitatively	O
,	O
while	O
soil	O
texture	O
is	O
determined	O
by	O
statistical	O
means	O
of	O
regression	O
with	O
calibration	B-General_Concept
,	O
scientists	O
also	O
developed	O
a	O
Soil	O
Water	O
Index	O
(	O
SWI	O
)	O
for	O
long-term	O
change	O
detection	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
contrast	O
in	O
soil	O
colour	O
allows	O
quantitative	O
analysis	O
of	O
band	O
depth	O
analysis	O
,	O
principal	B-Application
component	I-Application
analysis	I-Application
and	O
modeling	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
techniques	O
provide	O
evidence	O
such	O
as	O
observed	O
lineament	O
,	O
global	O
scale	O
mountain	O
distribution	O
,	O
seismicity	O
and	O
volcanic	O
activities	O
to	O
support	O
crustal	O
scale	O
tectonics	O
and	O
geodynamics	O
studies	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Aside	O
from	O
a	O
planar	O
geological	O
map	O
with	O
cross-sections	O
,	O
sometimes	O
3-dimensional	O
view	O
from	O
stereo-photos	O
or	O
representation	O
in	O
Digital	B-Application
Elevation	I-Application
Model	I-Application
(	O
DEM	O
)	O
could	O
aid	O
the	O
visualization	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
theory	O
,	O
LiDAR	O
gives	O
the	O
best	O
resolution	O
up	O
to	O
cm	O
grade	O
while	O
radar	B-Application
gives	O
10m	O
grade	O
because	O
of	O
its	O
high	O
sensitivity	O
to	O
small	O
scale	O
roughness	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Although	O
field	O
mapping	O
is	O
the	O
most	O
primary	O
and	O
preferable	O
way	O
to	O
acquire	O
ground	B-General_Concept
truth	I-General_Concept
,	O
the	O
method	O
does	O
not	O
work	O
when	O
areas	O
become	O
inaccessible	O
,	O
for	O
example	O
the	O
conditions	O
are	O
too	O
dangerous	O
or	O
extreme	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
,	O
on	O
the	O
other	O
hand	O
,	O
provides	O
information	O
of	O
the	O
area	O
of	O
interest	O
sending	O
neither	O
a	O
man	O
nor	O
a	O
sensor	O
to	O
the	O
site	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Desert	O
area	O
is	O
shaped	O
by	O
eolian	O
processes	O
and	O
its	O
landforms	O
by	O
erosion	B-Algorithm
and	O
deposition	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
stereopairs	B-Algorithm
of	O
aerial	O
photos	O
provide	O
three-dimensional	O
visualization	O
for	O
the	O
land	O
feature	O
while	O
hyperspectral	B-Application
image	I-Application
provide	O
grain	O
scale	O
information	O
for	O
grain	O
size	O
,	O
sand	O
composition	O
etc	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Another	O
tool	O
is	O
radar	B-Application
,	O
which	O
has	O
the	O
capability	O
to	O
penetrate	O
surficial	O
sand	O
,	O
a	O
material	O
of	O
low	O
dielectric	O
constant	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Water	O
bodies	O
,	O
for	O
instance	O
ocean	O
and	O
glaciers	O
,	O
could	O
be	O
studied	O
using	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Satellite	B-Application
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
in	O
VNIR	O
wavelength	O
region	O
help	O
locate	O
sporadic	O
event	O
of	O
change	O
in	O
ocean	O
colour	O
due	O
to	O
relative	O
increase	O
in	O
related	O
absorption	O
in	O
spectral	O
curve	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
capability	O
of	O
real-time	O
monitoring	O
by	O
combined	O
use	O
of	O
long	O
term	O
satellite	B-Application
data	O
allows	O
better	O
insight	O
into	O
the	O
ocean	O
dynamics	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
mapping	O
of	O
glaciers	O
is	O
facilitated	O
by	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
in	O
contrast	O
with	O
carrying	O
heavy	O
equipment	O
to	O
dangerous	O
icy	O
land	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Similarly	O
,	O
automated	O
approach	O
using	O
band	O
math	O
and	O
DEM	O
calculations	O
using	O
high	B-Algorithm
resolution	I-Algorithm
data	O
is	O
requisite	O
to	O
look	O
into	O
the	O
glacial	O
variations	O
due	O
to	O
dynamic	O
environmental	O
conditions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
can	O
also	O
help	O
earthquake	O
studies	O
by	O
two	O
aspects	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
From	O
a	O
geodetic	O
perspective	O
,	O
the	O
radar	B-Application
technique	O
(	O
SAR	O
Interferometry	O
,	O
also	O
called	O
InSAR	O
)	O
provides	O
land	O
displacement	O
measurement	O
up	O
to	O
cm	O
scale	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
SAR	O
interferometry	O
is	O
a	O
technology	O
utilizing	O
multiple	O
SAR	O
images	O
recording	O
the	O
backscattering	B-Algorithm
of	O
microwave	O
signal	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
returning	O
signal	O
can	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
estimate	O
the	O
distance	O
between	O
ground	O
and	O
satellite	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
two	O
images	O
are	O
obtained	O
at	O
the	O
same	O
point	O
but	O
at	O
different	O
time	O
,	O
some	O
pixels	B-Algorithm
showing	O
delayed	O
returns	O
reveal	O
displacement	O
,	O
assuming	O
no	O
ground	O
change	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Another	O
similar	O
technique	O
is	O
Global	O
Positioning	O
System	O
(	O
GPS	O
)	O
,	O
which	O
records	O
the	O
displacement	O
with	O
time	O
of	O
discrete	O
points	O
through	O
trilateration	O
of	O
microwave	O
GPS	O
satellite	B-Application
signals	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
mid-IR	O
thermal	O
(	O
11	O
–	O
12	O
micrometer	O
)	O
satellite	B-Application
images	O
have	O
shown	O
some	O
thermal	O
fields	O
in	O
geological	O
active	O
areas	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
lineation	O
and	O
fault	O
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Mangrove	O
offers	O
protection	O
against	O
tsunami	B-Application
and	O
storms	O
from	O
sweeping	O
away	O
inland	O
areas	O
because	O
the	O
mangrove	O
fringes	O
were	O
damaged	O
and	O
took	O
all	O
the	O
energy	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
of	O
mangrove	O
and	O
vegetation	O
as	O
a	O
natural	O
barrier	O
to	O
manage	O
risks	O
therefore	O
becomes	O
a	O
hot	O
topic	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
recent	O
advancement	O
and	O
development	O
is	O
highly	O
anticipated	O
in	O
the	O
near	O
future	O
,	O
especially	O
as	O
hyperspectral	B-Application
imaging	I-Application
system	O
and	O
very	O
high	B-Algorithm
resolution	I-Algorithm
(	O
up	O
to	O
sub	O
meter	O
grade	O
)	O
satellite	B-Application
images	O
prevails	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Tsunami-induced	O
inundation	O
leads	O
to	O
change	O
in	O
coastal	O
area	O
,	O
which	O
could	O
be	O
quantified	O
by	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
dynamic	O
magma	B-General_Concept
underneath	O
plates	O
we	O
are	O
living	O
on	O
induces	O
volcanic	O
activity	O
on	O
Earth	O
's	O
surface	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
To	O
advance	O
the	O
understanding	O
in	O
volcanological	O
science	O
and	O
active	O
volcano	O
monitoring	O
,	O
the	O
main	O
data	O
streams	O
aided	O
by	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
include	O
surface	O
deformation	O
and	O
thermal	O
measurement	O
plus	O
the	O
gas	O
flux	O
and	O
composition	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
the	O
Ultraviolet	B-Application
(	O
UV	O
)	O
and	O
VNIR	O
region	O
is	O
sensitive	O
to	O
sulfur	O
dioxide	O
,	O
one	O
of	O
the	O
volcanic	O
gases	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
is	O
able	O
to	O
collect	O
data	O
of	O
ground	O
,	O
3-D	O
modeling	O
using	O
finite	B-Application
element	I-Application
analysis	I-Application
added	O
with	O
geophysical	O
subsurface	O
survey	O
is	O
highly	O
encouraged	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Apart	O
from	O
site	O
characterization	O
through	O
geological	O
mapping	O
,	O
many	O
of	O
the	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
tools	O
mentioned	O
could	O
be	O
employed	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
LiDAR	O
technique	O
to	O
create	O
a	O
High	B-Algorithm
Resolution	I-Algorithm
Digital	B-Application
Elevation	I-Application
Model	I-Application
(	O
HRDEM	O
)	O
and	O
Digital	B-Application
Terrain	I-Application
Model	I-Application
(	O
DTM	O
)	O
with	O
vegetation	O
cover	O
is	O
crucial	O
to	O
the	O
quantification	O
of	O
slope	O
,	O
slope	O
aspect	O
,	O
stream	O
power	O
,	O
drainage	O
density	O
and	O
many	O
more	O
parameters	O
for	O
landslide	O
hazard	O
models	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Microwave	B-Application
radar	I-Application
can	O
also	O
take	O
part	O
in	O
landslide	O
recognition	O
in	O
synthetic	B-Application
aperture	I-Application
radar	I-Application
(	O
SAR	O
)	O
images	O
and	O
monitoring	O
through	O
the	O
InSAR	O
technique	O
which	O
effectively	O
shows	O
small	O
scale	O
deformation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
hazard	O
risk	O
management	O
could	O
be	O
further	O
discussed	O
using	O
geographical	B-Application
information	I-Application
system	I-Application
(	O
GIS	B-Application
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
can	O
provide	O
scalable	O
investigation	O
as	O
the	O
exploration	O
program	O
progress	O
at	O
a	O
reasonable	O
expenditure	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
point	O
to	O
bear	O
in	O
mind	O
is	O
the	O
inherit	O
limitation	O
,	O
that	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
is	O
for	O
surface	O
detection	O
while	O
natural	O
resources	O
are	O
concentrated	O
in	O
depth	O
,	O
therefore	O
its	O
use	O
is	O
somewhat	O
limited	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
overall	O
spectral	O
shape	O
from	O
hyperspectral	B-Application
imaging	I-Application
is	O
considered	O
first	O
,	O
followed	O
by	O
absorption	O
bands	O
,	O
in	O
their	O
algorithm	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Correlation	O
coefficients	O
for	O
each	O
pixel	B-Algorithm
is	O
then	O
calculated	O
by	O
comparison	O
between	O
the	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
data	O
and	O
ground	O
field	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
decision	O
would	O
be	O
assigned	O
to	O
each	O
pixel	B-Algorithm
by	O
the	O
most	O
susceptible	O
dominant	O
object	O
,	O
but	O
not	O
by	O
setting	O
up	O
threshold	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
much	O
of	O
the	O
information	O
is	O
indeed	O
provided	O
from	O
hydrogeology	O
,	O
geophysical	O
methods	O
and	O
drilling	O
,	O
the	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
technique	O
,	O
using	O
the	O
same	O
principle	O
to	O
integrate	O
data	O
collected	O
for	O
the	O
surface	O
,	O
can	O
infer	O
possible	O
confined/	O
unconfined	O
aquifers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
instance	O
in	O
radar	B-Application
data	O
(	O
ground	B-Algorithm
penetrating	I-Algorithm
radar	I-Algorithm
)	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
able	O
to	O
penetrate	O
the	O
ground	O
deep	O
into	O
meters	O
,	O
may	O
show	O
some	O
diffuse	O
reflection	O
for	O
‘	O
rough’	O
surface	O
relative	O
to	O
the	O
wavelength	O
used	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
surficial	O
vegetation	O
studies	O
are	O
mainly	O
accomplished	O
by	O
multispectral	O
or	O
hyperspectral	B-Application
image	I-Application
analysis	O
,	O
mainly	O
because	O
of	O
the	O
lower	O
penetration	O
depth	O
and	O
higher	O
resolutions	B-Algorithm
of	O
VNIR	O
wavelength	O
region	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
a	O
multitude	O
of	O
sensors	O
,	O
image	B-Algorithm
processing	I-Algorithm
and	O
classification	O
algorithms	O
and	O
result	O
evaluation	O
schemes	O
from	O
ancillary	O
data	O
available	O
in	O
vegetation	O
analysis	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
an	O
example	O
,	O
rangeland	O
characterization	O
with	O
regard	O
to	O
biomass	O
quantity	O
and	O
quality	O
could	O
be	O
inferred	O
from	O
hyperspectral	B-Application
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
quality	O
of	O
forage	O
presented	O
in	O
Carbon:Nitrogen	O
ratio	O
could	O
be	O
estimated	O
through	O
hyperspectral	B-Application
data	O
manipulation	O
with	O
greater	O
than	O
80%	O
accuracy	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Spectral	O
unmixing	O
technique	O
assuming	O
that	O
the	O
total	O
reflectance	O
of	O
a	O
pixel	B-Algorithm
is	O
a	O
linear	O
mix	O
of	O
component	O
reflectance	O
delineates	O
objects	O
contributing	O
the	O
resultant	O
signal	O
received	O
in	O
the	O
sensor	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Aside	O
from	O
the	O
Earth	O
,	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
has	O
made	O
planetary	O
exploration	O
possible	O
without	O
sending	O
an	O
astronaut	O
into	O
space	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
most	O
planetary	O
explorations	O
,	O
due	O
to	O
the	O
thick	O
atmosphere	O
,	O
radar	B-Application
is	O
a	O
suitable	O
instrumentation	O
to	O
investigate	O
planetary	O
surface	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Radar	B-Application
can	O
penetrate	O
the	O
atmosphere	O
and	O
detect	O
the	O
surface	O
roughness	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Also	O
,	O
topographic	O
maps	O
could	O
be	O
derived	O
from	O
radar	B-Application
altimetry	O
and	O
InSAR	O
methods	O
,	O
for	O
instance	O
in	O
the	O
mapping	O
of	O
Venus	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
an	O
example	O
of	O
planetary	O
applications	O
using	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
could	O
be	O
illustrated	O
by	O
the	O
volcanism	O
observation	O
on	O
Io	O
,	O
which	O
features	O
the	O
highest	O
number	O
of	O
active	O
volcanoes	O
per	O
square	O
kilometer	O
in	O
the	O
Solar	O
System	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Modeling	O
has	O
shown	O
that	O
a	O
suitable	O
distance	O
between	O
the	O
surveyed	O
ground	O
and	O
the	O
sensor	O
has	O
to	O
be	O
maintained	O
to	O
ensure	O
a	O
meaningful	O
pixel	B-Algorithm
size	O
to	O
resolve	O
the	O
Io	O
surface	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
by	O
satellite	B-Application
also	O
reduces	O
jittering	O
as	O
the	O
sensor	O
is	O
held	O
stable	O
in	O
space	O
and	O
gives	O
accurate	O
data	O
in	O
the	O
absence	O
of	O
atmosphere	O
for	O
terrestrial	O
observations	O
,	O
notwithstanding	O
the	O
strong	O
radiation	O
zone	O
in	O
Jupiter	O
which	O
dramatically	O
limits	O
sensor	O
lifetime	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Image	B-Algorithm
processing	I-Algorithm
is	O
crucial	O
to	O
convert	O
raw	O
data	O
into	O
useful	O
information	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
imaging	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
,	O
where	O
spectral	O
data	O
are	O
collected	O
and	O
recorded	O
in	O
pixels	B-Algorithm
of	O
an	O
image	O
,	O
a	O
two	O
dimensional	O
representation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
After	O
removal	O
of	O
noise	O
and	O
calibration	B-General_Concept
,	O
images	O
are	O
then	O
geo-referenced	B-General_Concept
to	O
relate	O
pixel	B-Algorithm
to	O
real-life	O
geography	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
data	O
are	O
often	O
validated	O
by	O
ground	B-General_Concept
truth	I-General_Concept
,	O
which	O
usually	O
serves	O
as	O
training	O
data	O
in	O
image	O
classification	O
to	O
ensure	O
quality	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
technique	O
is	O
intimately	O
connected	O
to	O
later	O
data	O
interpretation	O
and	O
visualization	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
one	O
of	O
the	O
capabilities	O
in	O
Geographical	B-Application
Information	I-Application
System	I-Application
(	O
GIS	B-Application
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
GIS	B-Application
also	O
allows	O
input	O
of	O
other	O
information	O
such	O
as	O
socio-economic	O
conditions	O
and	O
biophysical	O
conditions	O
in	O
terms	O
of	O
layers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
no	O
means	O
could	O
the	O
application	O
by	O
integration	O
of	O
GIS	B-Application
and	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
be	O
exhaustive	O
,	O
but	O
here	O
the	O
topics	O
of	O
hydrology	O
,	O
landslide	O
and	O
urban	O
planning	O
are	O
discussed	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
a	O
variety	O
of	O
applications	O
of	O
GIS	B-Application
and	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
data	O
in	O
water	O
management	O
,	O
ranging	O
from	O
exploration	O
,	O
modeling	O
of	O
subsurface	O
flow	O
and	O
natural	O
recharge	O
,	O
pollution	O
control	O
and	O
hydrogeologic	O
process	O
monitoring	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
essence	O
,	O
the	O
topography	O
,	O
vegetation	O
cover	O
,	O
drainage	O
landforms	O
and	O
aquifer	O
types	O
could	O
be	O
inferred	O
from	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
data	O
and	O
images	O
from	O
various	O
types	O
of	O
sensors	O
and	O
platform	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
case	O
study	O
in	O
Burdur	O
,	O
Turkey	O
presenting	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
data	O
and	O
spatial	O
analysis	O
performed	O
by	O
GIS	B-Application
is	O
one	O
of	O
the	O
pioneer	O
projects	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
collected	O
data	O
for	O
geology	O
and	O
lineament	O
density	O
while	O
GIS	B-Application
derived	O
drainage	O
density	O
,	O
topography	O
elevation	O
,	O
gradient	O
,	O
landuse	O
and	O
the	O
annual	O
rainfall	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
wealth	O
of	O
literature	O
has	O
shown	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
the	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
techniques	O
for	O
landslide	O
is	O
successful	O
in	O
all	O
recognition	O
,	O
monitoring	O
and	O
hazard	O
assessment	O
aspects	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
local	O
hydrogeological	O
models	O
generated	O
with	O
the	O
aid	O
of	O
in	O
situ	O
,	O
for	O
instance	O
,	O
piezometric	O
measurements	O
and	O
discontinuity	O
mapping	O
,	O
could	O
help	O
elucidate	O
the	O
kinematics	O
of	O
landslides	O
,	O
employing	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
for	O
landslide	O
evaluation	O
in	O
Hong	O
Kong	O
is	O
never	O
short	O
of	O
experience	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
instance	O
,	O
Interferometric	O
synthetic-aperture	B-Application
radar	I-Application
and	O
aerial	O
photo	O
interpretation	O
is	O
the	O
tool	O
used	O
in	O
history	O
for	O
detecting	O
surface	O
deformation	O
and	O
updating	O
landslide	O
inventory	O
respectively	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
GIS	B-Application
is	O
also	O
used	O
to	O
overlay	O
layers	O
of	O
terrain	O
(	O
elevation	O
and	O
slope	O
angle	O
)	O
,	O
lithology	O
with	O
rainfall	O
data	O
to	O
generate	O
landslide	O
hazard	O
maps	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
has	O
much	O
potential	O
in	O
environmental	O
applications	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
To	O
name	O
a	O
few	O
,	O
the	O
land	O
use	O
planning	O
(	O
for	O
instance	O
nuclear	O
power	O
plant	O
location	O
&	O
dumping	O
sites	O
)	O
,	O
monitoring	O
of	O
soil	O
erosion	B-Algorithm
and	O
atmospheric	O
pollution	O
,	O
vegetation	O
etc	O
.	O
</s>
