<s>
A	O
polymer	B-Language
electrolyte	O
is	O
a	O
polymer	B-Language
matrix	I-Language
capable	O
of	O
ion	O
conduction	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Much	O
like	O
other	O
types	O
of	O
electrolyte	O
—	O
liquid	O
and	O
solid-state	B-Algorithm
—	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
aid	O
in	O
movement	O
of	O
charge	O
between	O
the	O
anode	O
and	O
cathode	O
of	O
a	O
cell	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
use	O
of	O
polymers	B-Language
as	O
an	O
electrolyte	O
was	O
first	O
demonstrated	O
using	O
dye-sensitized	O
solar	O
cells	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
field	O
has	O
expanded	O
since	O
and	O
is	O
now	O
primarily	O
focused	O
on	O
the	O
development	O
of	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
with	O
applications	O
in	O
batteries	O
,	O
fuel	O
cells	O
,	O
and	O
membranes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Generally	O
,	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
comprise	O
a	O
polymer	B-Language
which	O
incorporates	O
a	O
highly	O
polar	O
motif	O
capable	O
of	O
electron	O
donation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Performance	O
parameters	O
impact	O
selection	O
of	O
homo	B-General_Concept
-	I-General_Concept
or	I-General_Concept
heterogenous	I-General_Concept
electrolyte	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
exist	O
four	O
major	O
types	O
of	O
polymer	B-Language
electrolyte	O
:	O
(	O
1	O
)	O
gel	O
polymer	B-Language
electrolyte	O
,	O
(	O
2	O
)	O
solid-state	B-Algorithm
polymer	B-Language
electrolyte	O
,	O
(	O
3	O
)	O
plasticized	O
polymer	B-Language
electrolyte	O
,	O
and	O
(	O
4	O
)	O
composite	O
polymer	B-Language
electrolyte	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
degree	O
of	O
crystallinity	O
of	O
a	O
polymer	B-Language
electrolyte	O
matrix	O
impacts	O
ion	O
mobility	O
and	O
the	O
transport	O
rate	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Amorphous	O
regions	O
promote	O
greater	O
percolation	O
of	O
charge	O
in	O
gel	O
and	O
plasticized	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Another	O
key	O
parameter	O
of	O
transport	O
is	O
the	O
temperature	O
dependence	O
of	O
polymer	B-Language
morphology	O
on	O
transport	O
mechanisms	O
by	O
the	O
glass	O
transition	O
temperature	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
shared	O
structural	O
feature	O
of	O
these	O
polymers	B-Language
is	O
the	O
presence	O
of	O
a	O
heteroatom	O
,	O
namely	O
nitrogen	O
or	O
oxygen	O
,	O
although	O
sulfur	O
has	O
also	O
been	O
demonstrated	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
of	O
these	O
polymers	B-Language
have	O
other	O
applications	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
structures	O
of	O
several	O
of	O
these	O
polymers	B-Language
are	O
shown	O
in	O
the	O
adjacent	O
image	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Showcases	O
several	O
of	O
these	O
polymers	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Other	O
types	O
of	O
polymers	B-Language
capable	O
of	O
ion	O
conduction	O
include	O
polymeric	O
ions	O
,	O
which	O
incorporate	O
either	O
an	O
oxidized	O
(	O
for	O
anion	O
transport	O
)	O
or	O
reduced	O
element	O
of	O
the	O
polymer	B-Language
main	O
chain	O
through	O
a	O
process	O
called	O
chemical	B-Algorithm
doping	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Chemical	B-Algorithm
doping	I-Algorithm
makes	O
these	O
polymers	B-Language
behave	O
as	O
either	O
n-type	O
or	O
p-type	O
semiconductors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Gel	O
polymer	B-Language
electrolyte	O
capture	O
solvent	O
constituents	O
and	O
aid	O
in	O
ion	O
transport	O
across	O
the	O
polymer	B-Language
matrix	I-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
gel	O
supports	O
the	O
polymer	B-Language
scaffold	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
noted	O
that	O
amorphous	O
domains	O
of	O
these	O
polymers	B-Language
absorb	O
larger	O
amounts	O
of	O
solvent	O
(	O
and	O
swell	O
accordingly	O
)	O
than	O
do	O
crystalline	O
domains	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Percolation	O
of	O
charge	O
does	O
occur	O
in	O
highly	O
ordered	O
polymer	B-Language
electrolyte	O
,	O
but	O
the	O
number	O
and	O
proximity	O
of	O
amorphous	O
domains	O
is	O
correlated	O
with	O
increased	O
percolation	O
of	O
charge	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Gel	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
also	O
shown	O
specific	O
applications	O
for	O
lithium-ion	O
batteries	O
to	O
replace	O
current	O
organic	O
liquid	O
electrolytes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
type	O
of	O
electrolyte	O
has	O
also	O
been	O
shown	O
to	O
be	O
able	O
to	O
be	O
prepared	O
from	O
renewable	O
and	O
degradable	O
polymers	B-Language
while	O
remaining	O
capable	O
of	O
mitigating	O
current	O
issues	O
at	O
the	O
cathode-electrolyte	O
interface	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Solid-state	B-Algorithm
polymer	B-Language
electrolyte	O
arises	O
from	O
coordination	O
of	O
an	O
inorganic	O
salt	O
to	O
the	O
polymer	B-Language
matrix	I-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Application	O
of	O
a	O
potential	O
results	O
in	O
ion	O
exchange	O
through	O
coordination	O
,	O
decoordination	O
,	O
and	O
recoordination	O
along	O
the	O
polymer	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Solid-state	B-Algorithm
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
have	O
also	O
been	O
employed	O
in	O
processing	O
of	O
gallium	O
nitide	O
wafers	O
by	O
providing	O
a	O
liquid	O
-	O
and	O
radiation-free	O
method	O
of	O
oxidizing	O
the	O
surface	O
of	O
the	O
gallium	O
nitide	O
wafer	O
to	O
enable	O
easier	O
polishing	O
of	O
the	O
wafer	O
than	O
previous	O
methods	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Plasticized	O
polymer	B-Language
electrolyte	O
is	O
a	O
polymer	B-Language
matrix	I-Language
with	O
incorporated	O
plasticizers	O
that	O
enhance	O
their	O
ion	O
conductivity	O
by	O
weakening	O
intra	O
-	O
and	O
interchain	O
interactions	O
that	O
compete	O
with	O
ion-polymer	O
interactions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
similar	O
phenomenon	O
to	O
that	O
previously	O
discussed	O
with	O
polymer	B-Language
gel	O
electrolytes	O
is	O
observed	O
with	O
plasticized	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
addition	O
of	O
plasticizer	O
lowers	O
the	O
glass	O
transition	O
temperature	O
of	O
the	O
polymer	B-Language
and	O
effectively	O
enhances	O
salt	O
dissociation	O
into	O
the	O
polymer	B-Language
matrix	I-Language
which	O
increases	O
the	O
ability	O
of	O
the	O
polymer	B-Language
electrolyte	O
to	O
transport	O
ions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
limitation	O
of	O
plasticizer	O
incorporation	O
is	O
the	O
alteration	O
of	O
the	O
polymer	B-Language
's	O
mechanical	O
properties	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Reduction	O
in	O
the	O
crystallinity	O
of	O
the	O
polymer	B-Language
weakens	O
its	O
mechanical	O
strength	O
at	O
room	O
temperature	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Plasticizers	O
also	O
modulate	O
properties	O
of	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
other	O
than	O
conductivity	O
such	O
as	O
affecting	O
charge/discharge	O
times	O
and	O
enhanced	O
capacity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Composite	O
polymer	B-Language
electrolyte	O
is	O
a	O
polymer	B-Language
matrix	I-Language
that	O
incorporates	O
inorganic	O
fillers	O
that	O
are	O
chemically	O
inert	O
,	O
but	O
with	O
a	O
high	O
dielectric	O
constant	O
to	O
enhance	O
ion	O
conductivity	O
by	O
inhibiting	O
the	O
formation	O
of	O
ion	O
pairs	O
in	O
the	O
polymer	B-Language
matrix	I-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
has	O
been	O
demonstrated	O
that	O
the	O
blending	O
of	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
with	O
an	O
inorganic	O
filler	O
affords	O
a	O
composite	O
material	O
with	O
properties	O
exceeding	O
the	O
sum	O
of	O
those	O
of	O
the	O
individual	O
components	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
particular	O
,	O
ion	O
conduction	O
in	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
is	O
low	O
(	O
compared	O
to	O
liquid	O
and	O
solid-state	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
)	O
,	O
but	O
blending	O
with	O
ceramic	O
materials	O
has	O
been	O
shown	O
to	O
enhance	O
the	O
ion	O
mobility	O
and	O
conductivity	O
of	O
the	O
polymer	B-Language
electrolyte	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
additional	O
benefit	O
is	O
that	O
the	O
desirable	O
properties	O
of	O
the	O
polymer	B-Language
are	O
maintained	O
,	O
particularly	O
its	O
mechanical	O
strength	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Ion	O
transport	O
mechanisms	O
will	O
primarily	O
focus	O
on	O
that	O
for	O
the	O
transport	O
of	O
cations	O
as	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
cation-conductive	O
polymers	B-Language
is	O
a	O
greater	O
area	O
of	O
academic	O
focus	O
due	O
to	O
the	O
widespread	O
use	O
of	O
lithium-ion	O
batteries	O
and	O
other	O
efforts	O
aimed	O
at	O
developing	O
multivalent	O
metal	O
ion	O
batteries	O
such	O
as	O
magnesium	B-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Ion	O
mobility	O
is	O
defined	O
as	O
the	O
ability	O
of	O
an	O
ion	O
to	O
move	O
between	O
polar	O
groups	O
along	O
the	O
length	O
of	O
the	O
main	O
chain	O
of	O
a	O
polymer	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
At	O
or	O
above	O
the	O
glass	O
transition	O
temperature	O
,	O
it	O
is	O
believed	O
chain	O
motions	O
generate	O
a	O
free	O
volume	O
that	O
the	O
ions	O
are	O
able	O
to	O
transport	O
through	O
with	O
aid	O
weak	O
,	O
labile	O
coordination	O
between	O
the	O
ion	O
and	O
the	O
parts	O
of	O
the	O
polymer	B-Language
chain	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
certain	O
applications	O
thin	O
films	O
of	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
are	O
needed	O
,	O
which	O
necessitates	O
careful	O
control	O
of	O
morphology	O
and	O
properties	O
due	O
to	O
deviations	O
in	O
the	O
glass	O
transition	O
temperature	O
and	O
other	O
mechanical	O
properties	O
associated	O
with	O
increasingly	O
thin	O
films	O
of	O
amorphous	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Ion	O
transport	O
is	O
impacted	O
by	O
concentration	O
of	O
the	O
counterion	O
and	O
the	O
ability	O
of	O
polymer	B-Language
chains	O
to	O
remain	O
mobile	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
commonly	O
believed	O
that	O
the	O
greater	O
the	O
ability	O
of	O
a	O
polymer	B-Language
matrix	I-Language
to	O
move	O
,	O
the	O
better	O
the	O
ion	O
conductivity	O
will	O
be	O
;	O
however	O
,	O
this	O
is	O
not	O
well	O
understood	O
as	O
crystalline	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
have	O
been	O
shown	O
to	O
be	O
more	O
conductive	O
than	O
an	O
amorphous	O
version	O
of	O
the	O
same	O
electrolyte	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
crystalline	O
polymer	B-Language
electrolyte	O
,	O
the	O
organization	O
of	O
the	O
chains	O
promotes	O
the	O
formation	O
of	O
interchain	O
"	O
tunnels	O
"	O
in	O
which	O
the	O
ion	O
of	O
interest	O
is	O
able	O
to	O
hop	O
between	O
coordination	O
sites	O
,	O
while	O
the	O
counterion	O
moves	O
along	O
the	O
polymer	B-Language
chain	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
tunnels	O
allows	O
control	O
over	O
anion	O
and	O
cation	O
flow	O
in	O
crystalline	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
because	O
they	O
highly	O
ordered	O
crystalline	O
domains	O
are	O
selective	O
to	O
an	O
ion	O
exclude	O
its	O
counter	O
ion	O
allowing	O
for	O
their	O
separation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
can	O
increase	O
conductivity	O
in	O
crystalline	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
amorphous	O
polymers	B-Language
that	O
show	O
enhanced	O
conductivity	O
,	O
it	O
is	O
propose	O
that	O
the	O
amorphous	O
character	O
enables	O
greater	O
movement	O
of	O
chains	O
and	O
this	O
increases	O
mobility	O
of	O
ions	O
as	O
their	O
coordination	O
is	O
transient	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
adjacent	O
image	O
illustrates	O
a	O
possible	O
mechanisms	O
for	O
ion	O
transport	O
through	O
short	O
range	O
chain	O
ordering	O
and	O
motions	O
in	O
amorphous	O
regions	O
of	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
several	O
factors	O
to	O
be	O
optimized	O
in	O
the	O
design	O
of	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
such	O
as	O
ion	O
conductivity	O
,	O
mechanical	O
strength	O
,	O
and	O
being	O
chemically	O
inert	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
properties	O
are	O
typically	O
characterized	O
using	O
a	O
variety	O
of	O
techniques	O
that	O
exist	O
and	O
are	O
already	O
employed	O
in	O
the	O
characterization	O
of	O
conductive	O
polymers	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Complex	O
Impedance	O
spectroscopy	O
,	O
also	O
known	O
as	O
dielectric	O
spectroscopy	O
,	O
enables	O
characterization	O
of	O
the	O
conductivity	O
and	O
permittivity	O
of	O
both	O
heterogeneous	O
and	O
homogenous	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Complex	O
impedance	O
spectroscopy	O
has	O
also	O
been	O
used	O
to	O
gain	O
insight	O
into	O
how	O
dopants	B-Algorithm
and	O
electrode	O
parameters	O
affect	O
permittivity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Recent	O
research	O
has	O
focused	O
on	O
probing	O
the	O
conducting	O
relaxation	O
of	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
based	O
on	O
their	O
conductance	O
and	O
electrode	O
parameters	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Determination	O
of	O
the	O
glass	O
transition	O
temperature	O
,	O
and	O
methods	O
for	O
characterizing	O
the	O
mechanical	O
properties	O
of	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
are	O
also	O
useful	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
are	O
distinct	O
from	O
solid	O
inorganic	O
and	O
liquid	O
electrolytes	O
and	O
offer	O
several	O
advantages	O
including	O
flexibility	B-Algorithm
,	O
processability	O
,	O
robustness	O
,	O
and	O
safety	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Polymers	B-Language
,	O
typically	O
mixed	O
with	O
a	O
plasticizer	O
do	O
not	O
have	O
this	O
problem	O
,	O
which	O
increases	O
their	O
desirability	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Additionally	O
,	O
the	O
high	O
processability	O
of	O
compatible	O
polymers	B-Language
results	O
in	O
simpler	O
design	O
and	O
construction	O
of	O
the	O
chemical	O
cell	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
also	O
resist	O
electrode	O
volume	O
changes	O
associated	O
with	O
the	O
charge	O
and	O
discharge	O
of	O
a	O
cell	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
a	O
part	O
of	O
this	O
,	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
have	O
been	O
demonstrated	O
to	O
better	O
resist	O
the	O
development	O
of	O
destructive	O
dendrites	O
in	O
lithium-ion	O
batteries	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
shear	O
moduli	O
of	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
exceed	O
those	O
of	O
lithium	O
metal	O
,	O
which	O
aid	O
in	O
preventing	O
dendrite	O
growth	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Blended	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
prepared	O
out	O
of	O
glassy	O
and	O
rubbery	O
polymer	B-Language
have	O
been	O
demonstrates	O
to	O
all	O
but	O
halt	O
dendrite	O
formation	O
,	O
but	O
they	O
are	O
limited	O
by	O
issues	O
with	O
conductivity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Finally	O
,	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
are	O
relatively	O
safe	O
compared	O
to	O
liquid	O
and	O
solid-state	B-Algorithm
batteries	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Generally	O
,	O
it	O
has	O
been	O
demonstrated	O
that	O
several	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
resist	O
degradation	O
in	O
air	O
and	O
resist	O
combustion	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Much	O
of	O
the	O
interest	O
in	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
stems	O
form	O
their	O
flexibility	B-Algorithm
and	O
enhanced	O
safety	O
over	O
inorganic	O
and	O
liquid	O
electrolytes	O
alternatively	O
used	O
in	O
batteries	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Solid-state	B-Algorithm
and	O
composite	O
electrolytes	O
enable	O
development	O
of	O
solid-state	B-Algorithm
lithium-ion	O
batteries	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Dendrite	O
formation	O
is	O
also	O
noted	O
to	O
be	O
limited	O
by	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
due	O
to	O
their	O
ability	O
to	O
aid	O
in	O
halting	O
growth	O
of	O
lithium	O
crystals	O
precipitating	O
from	O
the	O
electrolyte	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
performance	O
of	O
different	O
polymers	B-Language
contributes	O
some	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
being	O
better	O
candidates	O
than	O
others	O
for	O
integration	O
into	O
a	O
particular	O
cell	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Conductive	O
polymer	B-Language
membranes	O
are	O
a	O
growing	O
area	O
of	O
application	O
for	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
example	O
of	O
membranes	O
made	O
from	O
conductive	O
polymer	B-Language
selective	O
barriers	O
in	O
multifunctional	O
micelles	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Fuel	O
cell	O
applications	O
of	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
typically	O
employ	O
perfluorosulfonic	O
acid	O
membranes	O
capable	O
of	O
selective	O
proton	O
conduction	O
from	O
the	O
anode	O
to	O
the	O
cathode	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
current	O
conductive	O
polymer	B-Language
membranes	O
are	O
limited	O
by	O
requiring	O
humidification	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
face	O
durability	O
issues	O
related	O
to	O
their	O
mechanical	O
properties	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
presence	O
of	O
a	O
polymer	B-Language
electrolyte	O
,	O
particularly	O
one	O
that	O
is	O
solid-state	B-Algorithm
enables	O
reduction	O
in	O
device	O
thickness	O
and	O
shorter	O
mass	O
transport	O
distances	O
which	O
contribute	O
to	O
an	O
overall	O
enhanced	O
cell	O
efficiency	O
over	O
devices	O
with	O
other	O
electrolytes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
have	O
also	O
seen	O
widespread	O
use	O
in	O
capacitors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
All-plastic	O
capacitors	O
can	O
also	O
be	O
prepared	O
by	O
sandwiching	O
either	O
a	O
solid-state	B-Algorithm
polymer	B-Language
electrolyte	O
between	O
two	O
plastic	O
electrodes	O
,	O
or	O
through	O
connection	O
electrodes	O
through	O
a	O
polymeric	O
ionic	O
liquid	O
electrolyte	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Blends	O
of	O
polymer	B-Algorithm
electrolytes	I-Algorithm
such	O
as	O
poly(vinyl alcohol )	O
and	O
poly(chitosan )	O
show	O
high	O
capacitance	O
and	O
stability	O
and	O
are	O
an	O
advantageous	O
alternative	O
to	O
capacitors	O
prepared	O
with	O
more	O
resource	O
sensitive	O
materials	O
.	O
</s>
