<s>
Photogrammetry	B-Application
is	O
the	O
science	O
and	O
technology	O
of	O
obtaining	O
reliable	O
information	O
about	O
physical	O
objects	O
and	O
the	O
environment	O
through	O
the	O
process	O
of	O
recording	O
,	O
measuring	O
and	O
interpreting	O
photographic	O
images	O
and	O
patterns	O
of	O
electromagnetic	O
radiant	O
imagery	O
and	O
other	O
phenomena	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
term	O
photogrammetry	B-Application
was	O
coined	O
by	O
the	O
Prussian	O
architect	O
Albrecht	O
Meydenbauer	O
,	O
which	O
appeared	O
in	O
his	O
1867	O
article	O
"	O
Die	O
Photometrographie.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
many	O
variants	O
of	O
photogrammetry	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
images	O
)	O
;	O
for	O
example	O
,	O
the	O
distance	O
between	O
two	O
points	O
that	O
lie	O
on	O
a	O
plane	O
parallel	O
to	O
the	O
photographic	O
image	B-General_Concept
plane	I-General_Concept
can	O
be	O
determined	O
by	O
measuring	O
their	O
distance	O
on	O
the	O
image	O
,	O
if	O
the	O
scale	O
of	O
the	O
image	O
is	O
known	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Close-range	O
photogrammetry	B-Application
refers	O
to	O
the	O
collection	O
of	O
photography	O
from	O
a	O
lesser	O
distance	O
than	O
traditional	O
aerial	O
(	O
or	O
orbital	O
)	O
photogrammetry	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Photogrammetric	B-Application
analysis	O
may	O
be	O
applied	O
to	O
one	O
photograph	O
,	O
or	O
may	O
use	O
high-speed	O
photography	O
and	O
remote	B-Application
sensing	I-Application
to	O
detect	O
,	O
measure	O
and	O
record	O
complex	O
2D	O
and	O
3D	O
motion	O
fields	O
by	O
feeding	O
measurements	O
and	O
imagery	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
into	O
computational	B-Application
models	I-Application
in	O
an	O
attempt	O
to	O
successively	O
estimate	O
,	O
with	O
increasing	O
accuracy	O
,	O
the	O
actual	O
,	O
3D	O
relative	O
motions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
From	O
its	O
beginning	O
with	O
the	O
stereoplotters	O
used	O
to	O
plot	O
contour	O
lines	O
on	O
topographic	O
maps	O
,	O
it	O
now	O
has	O
a	O
very	O
wide	O
range	O
of	O
uses	O
such	O
as	O
sonar	B-Application
,	O
radar	B-Application
,	O
and	O
lidar	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Photogrammetry	B-Application
uses	O
methods	O
from	O
many	O
disciplines	O
,	O
including	O
optics	B-Algorithm
and	O
projective	O
geometry	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Digital	O
image	O
capturing	O
and	O
photogrammetric	B-Application
processing	O
includes	O
several	O
well	O
defined	O
stages	O
,	O
which	O
allow	O
the	O
generation	O
of	O
2D	O
or	O
3D	O
digital	O
models	O
of	O
the	O
object	O
as	O
an	O
end	O
product	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
data	O
model	O
on	O
the	O
right	O
shows	O
what	O
type	O
of	O
information	O
can	O
go	O
into	O
and	O
come	O
out	O
of	O
photogrammetric	B-Application
methods	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Each	O
of	O
the	O
four	O
main	O
variables	O
can	O
be	O
an	O
input	O
or	O
an	O
output	O
of	O
a	O
photogrammetric	B-Application
method	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Algorithms	O
for	O
photogrammetry	B-Application
typically	O
attempt	O
to	O
minimize	O
the	O
sum	O
of	O
the	O
squares	B-Algorithm
of	I-Algorithm
errors	I-Algorithm
over	O
the	O
coordinates	O
and	O
relative	O
displacements	O
of	O
the	O
reference	O
points	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
minimization	O
is	O
known	O
as	O
bundle	B-General_Concept
adjustment	I-General_Concept
and	O
is	O
often	O
performed	O
using	O
the	O
Levenberg	B-Algorithm
–	I-Algorithm
Marquardt	I-Algorithm
algorithm	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
special	O
case	O
,	O
called	O
stereophotogrammetry	O
,	O
involves	O
estimating	O
the	O
three-dimensional	O
coordinates	O
of	O
points	O
on	O
an	O
object	O
employing	O
measurements	O
made	O
in	O
two	O
or	O
more	O
photographic	O
images	O
taken	O
from	O
different	O
positions	O
(	O
see	O
stereoscopy	B-Algorithm
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
the	O
intersection	O
of	O
these	O
rays	O
(	O
triangulation	B-Algorithm
)	O
that	O
determines	O
the	O
three-dimensional	O
location	O
of	O
the	O
point	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Photogrammetric	B-Application
data	O
can	O
be	O
complemented	O
with	O
range	O
data	O
from	O
other	O
techniques	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Photogrammetry	B-Application
is	O
more	O
accurate	O
in	O
the	O
x	O
and	O
y	O
direction	O
while	O
range	O
data	O
are	O
generally	O
more	O
accurate	O
in	O
the	O
z	O
direction	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
range	O
data	O
can	O
be	O
supplied	O
by	O
techniques	O
like	O
LiDAR	O
,	O
laser	O
scanners	O
(	O
using	O
time	O
of	O
flight	O
,	O
triangulation	B-Algorithm
or	O
interferometry	O
)	O
,	O
white-light	O
digitizers	O
and	O
any	O
other	O
technique	O
that	O
scans	O
an	O
area	O
and	O
returns	O
x	O
,	O
y	O
,	O
z	O
coordinates	O
for	O
multiple	O
discrete	O
points	O
(	O
commonly	O
called	O
"	O
point	B-Algorithm
clouds	I-Algorithm
"	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Photos	O
can	O
clearly	O
define	O
the	O
edges	O
of	O
buildings	O
when	O
the	O
point	B-Algorithm
cloud	I-Algorithm
footprint	O
can	O
not	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
3D	O
visualization	O
can	O
be	O
created	O
by	O
georeferencing	O
the	O
aerial	O
photos	O
and	O
LiDAR	O
data	O
in	O
the	O
same	O
reference	O
frame	O
,	O
orthorectifying	B-Algorithm
the	O
aerial	O
photos	O
,	O
and	O
then	O
draping	O
the	O
orthorectified	B-General_Concept
images	O
on	O
top	O
of	O
the	O
LiDAR	O
grid	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
also	O
possible	O
to	O
create	O
digital	B-Application
terrain	I-Application
models	I-Application
and	O
thus	O
3D	O
visualisations	O
using	O
pairs	O
(	O
or	O
multiples	O
)	O
of	O
aerial	O
photographs	O
or	O
satellite	O
(	O
e.g.	O
</s>
<s>
Techniques	O
such	O
as	O
adaptive	O
least	B-Algorithm
squares	I-Algorithm
stereo	O
matching	O
are	O
then	O
used	O
to	O
produce	O
a	O
dense	O
array	O
of	O
correspondences	O
which	O
are	O
transformed	O
through	O
a	O
camera	O
model	O
to	O
produce	O
a	O
dense	O
array	O
of	O
x	O
,	O
y	O
,	O
z	O
data	O
which	O
can	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
produce	O
digital	B-Application
terrain	I-Application
model	I-Application
and	O
orthoimage	B-General_Concept
products	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
the	O
ITG	O
system	O
,	O
were	O
developed	O
in	O
the	O
1980s	O
and	O
1990s	O
but	O
have	O
since	O
been	O
supplanted	O
by	O
LiDAR	O
and	O
radar-based	O
approaches	O
,	O
although	O
these	O
techniques	O
may	O
still	O
be	O
useful	O
in	O
deriving	O
elevation	O
models	O
from	O
old	O
aerial	O
photographs	O
or	O
satellite	O
images	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Photogrammetry	B-Application
is	O
used	O
in	O
fields	O
such	O
as	O
topographic	O
mapping	O
,	O
architecture	O
,	O
engineering	O
,	O
manufacturing	O
,	O
quality	O
control	O
,	O
police	O
investigation	O
,	O
cultural	O
heritage	O
,	O
and	O
geology	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Archaeologists	O
use	O
it	O
to	O
quickly	O
produce	O
plans	O
of	O
large	O
or	O
complex	O
sites	O
,	O
and	O
meteorologists	O
use	O
it	O
to	O
determine	O
the	O
wind	O
speed	O
of	O
tornadoes	B-Language
when	O
objective	O
weather	O
data	O
cannot	O
be	O
obtained	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
also	O
used	O
to	O
combine	O
live	O
action	O
with	O
computer-generated	O
imagery	O
in	O
movies	O
post-production	O
;	O
The	O
Matrix	O
is	O
a	O
good	O
example	O
of	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
photogrammetry	B-Application
in	O
film	O
(	O
details	O
are	O
given	O
in	O
the	O
DVD	O
extras	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Photogrammetry	B-Application
was	O
used	O
extensively	O
to	O
create	O
photorealistic	O
environmental	O
assets	O
for	O
video	O
games	O
including	O
The	B-Application
Vanishing	I-Application
of	I-Application
Ethan	I-Application
Carter	I-Application
as	O
well	O
as	O
EA	O
DICE	O
's	O
Star	O
Wars	O
Battlefront	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
main	O
character	O
of	O
the	O
game	O
Hellblade	B-Application
:	I-Application
Senua	I-Application
's	I-Application
Sacrifice	I-Application
was	O
derived	O
from	O
photogrammetric	B-Application
motion-capture	O
models	O
taken	O
of	O
actress	O
Melina	O
Juergens	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Photogrammetry	B-Application
is	O
also	O
commonly	O
employed	O
in	O
collision	O
engineering	O
,	O
especially	O
with	O
automobiles	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Photogrammetry	B-Application
is	O
used	O
to	O
determine	O
how	O
much	O
the	O
car	O
in	O
question	O
was	O
deformed	O
,	O
which	O
relates	O
to	O
the	O
amount	O
of	O
energy	O
required	O
to	O
produce	O
that	O
deformation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
highest	O
resolution	O
aerial	O
photomaps	O
on	O
GoogleEarth	B-Application
are	O
approximately	O
spatial	O
resolution	O
images	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
highest	O
resolution	O
photomap	O
of	O
ortho	B-General_Concept
images	I-General_Concept
was	O
made	O
in	O
Hungary	O
in	O
2012	O
with	O
a	O
spatial	O
resolution	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Handheld	O
,	O
near-nadir	O
,	O
overhead	O
digital	O
photographs	O
have	O
been	O
used	O
with	O
geographic	B-Application
information	I-Application
systems	I-Application
(	O
GIS	B-Application
)	O
to	O
record	O
excavation	O
exposures	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Photogrammetry	B-Application
is	O
increasingly	O
being	O
used	O
in	O
maritime	O
archaeology	O
because	O
of	O
the	O
relative	O
ease	O
of	O
mapping	O
sites	O
compared	O
to	O
traditional	O
methods	O
,	O
allowing	O
the	O
creation	O
of	O
3D	O
maps	O
which	O
can	O
be	O
rendered	O
in	O
virtual	O
reality	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
photogrammetry	B-Application
relies	O
on	O
images	O
,	O
there	O
are	O
physical	O
limitations	O
when	O
those	O
images	O
are	O
of	O
an	O
object	O
that	O
has	O
dark	O
,	O
shiny	O
or	O
clear	O
surfaces	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
those	O
cases	O
,	O
the	O
produced	O
model	O
often	O
still	O
contains	O
gaps	O
,	O
so	O
additional	O
cleanup	O
with	O
software	O
like	O
MeshLab	B-Language
,	O
netfabb	O
or	O
MeshMixer	O
is	O
often	O
still	O
necessary	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Google	B-Application
Earth	I-Application
uses	O
photogrammetry	B-Application
to	O
create	O
3D	O
imagery	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
is	O
also	O
a	O
project	O
called	O
Rekrei	O
that	O
uses	O
photogrammetry	B-Application
to	O
make	O
3D	O
models	O
of	O
lost/stolen/broken	O
artifacts	O
that	O
are	O
then	O
posted	O
online	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
exist	O
many	O
software	O
packages	O
for	O
photogrammetry	B-Application
;	O
see	O
comparison	O
of	O
photogrammetry	B-Application
software	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Apple	O
introduced	O
a	O
photogrammetry	B-Application
API	B-General_Concept
called	O
Object	O
Capture	O
for	O
macOS	B-Device
Monterey	I-Device
at	O
the	O
2021	O
Apple	O
Worldwide	O
Developers	O
Conference	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
order	O
to	O
use	O
the	O
software	O
,	O
however	O
,	O
"	O
you	O
need	O
an	O
iPhone	O
or	O
iPad	O
with	O
a	O
dual-lens	O
rear	O
camera	O
(	O
and	O
preferably	O
a	O
LiDAR	O
scanner	O
,	O
although	O
not	O
required	O
)	O
to	O
capture	O
depth	O
data	O
,	O
"	O
in	O
addition	O
to	O
a	O
MacBook	B-Device
running	O
macOS	B-Device
Monterey	I-Device
.	O
</s>
