<s>
Non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
are	O
neurons	O
that	O
are	O
located	O
in	O
the	O
central	O
and	O
peripheral	O
nervous	O
systems	O
and	O
function	O
as	O
intermediary	O
relays	O
for	O
sensory-motor	O
neurons	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
They	O
do	O
not	O
exhibit	O
the	O
characteristic	O
spiking	O
behavior	O
of	O
action	B-Algorithm
potential	I-Algorithm
generating	O
neurons	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Non-spiking	O
neural	B-Architecture
networks	I-Architecture
are	O
integrated	O
with	O
spiking	O
neural	B-Architecture
networks	I-Architecture
to	O
have	O
a	O
synergistic	O
effect	O
in	O
being	O
able	O
to	O
stimulate	O
some	O
sensory	O
or	O
motor	O
response	O
while	O
also	O
being	O
able	O
to	O
modulate	O
the	O
response	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
an	O
abundance	O
of	O
neurons	O
that	O
propagate	O
signals	O
via	O
action	B-Algorithm
potentials	I-Algorithm
and	O
the	O
mechanics	O
of	O
this	O
particular	O
kind	O
of	O
transmission	O
is	O
well	O
understood	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Spiking	O
neurons	O
exhibit	O
action	B-Algorithm
potentials	I-Algorithm
as	O
a	O
result	O
of	O
a	O
neuron	O
characteristic	O
known	O
as	O
membrane	O
potential	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Through	O
studying	O
these	O
complex	O
spiking	B-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
in	O
animals	O
,	O
a	O
neuron	O
that	O
did	O
not	O
exhibit	O
characteristic	O
spiking	O
behavior	O
was	O
discovered	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
neurons	O
use	O
a	O
graded	B-Algorithm
potential	I-Algorithm
to	O
transmit	O
data	O
as	O
they	O
lack	O
the	O
membrane	O
potential	O
that	O
spiking	O
neurons	O
possess	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
were	O
identified	O
as	O
a	O
special	O
kind	O
of	O
interneuron	O
and	O
function	O
as	O
an	O
intermediary	O
point	O
of	O
process	O
for	O
sensory-motor	O
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Animals	O
have	O
become	O
substantial	O
models	O
for	O
understanding	O
more	O
about	O
non-spiking	O
neural	B-Architecture
networks	I-Architecture
and	O
the	O
role	O
they	O
play	O
in	O
an	O
animal	O
’s	O
ability	O
to	O
process	O
information	O
and	O
its	O
overall	O
function	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Most	O
of	O
the	O
known	O
information	O
about	O
nonspiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
is	O
derived	O
from	O
animal	O
models	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
modulatory	O
interneurons	O
are	O
usually	O
nonspiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Advances	O
in	O
studying	O
nonspiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
included	O
determining	O
new	O
delineations	O
among	O
the	O
different	O
types	O
of	O
interneurons	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Studies	O
have	O
been	O
done	O
on	O
the	O
non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neuron	I-General_Concept
qualities	O
in	O
animals	O
of	O
specific	O
non-spiking	O
neural	B-Architecture
networks	I-Architecture
that	O
have	O
a	O
corollary	O
in	O
humans	O
,	O
e.g.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neuron	I-General_Concept
is	O
a	O
neuron	O
that	O
transmits	O
a	O
signal	O
via	O
graded	B-Algorithm
potential	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Spiking	O
neurons	O
and	O
non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
are	O
usually	O
integrated	O
into	O
the	O
same	O
neural	B-Architecture
network	I-Architecture
,	O
but	O
they	O
possess	O
specific	O
characteristics	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
propagate	O
messages	O
without	O
eliciting	O
an	O
action	B-Algorithm
potential	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
is	O
most	O
likely	O
due	O
to	O
the	O
chemical	O
composition	O
of	O
the	O
membranes	O
of	O
the	O
non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
They	O
function	O
by	O
propagating	O
graded	B-Algorithm
potentials	I-Algorithm
and	O
serve	O
to	O
modulate	O
some	O
neuromuscular	O
junctions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Spiking	O
neurons	O
are	O
noted	O
as	O
traditional	O
action	B-Algorithm
potential	I-Algorithm
generating	O
neurons	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
"	O
Interneurons	O
"	O
is	O
a	O
name	O
used	O
to	O
indicate	O
neurons	O
that	O
are	O
neither	O
sensory	B-Architecture
neurons	I-Architecture
nor	O
motory	O
in	O
nature	O
,	O
but	O
function	O
as	O
an	O
intermediary	O
processing	O
and	O
transmission	O
state	O
for	O
signals	O
that	O
have	O
been	O
received	O
via	O
dorsal	O
root	O
ganglia	O
cells	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
To	O
better	O
define	O
non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neuron	I-General_Concept
signal	O
transmission	O
and	O
signal	O
transduction	O
,	O
many	O
experiments	O
have	O
been	O
performed	O
to	O
qualify	O
and	O
quantify	O
the	O
fidelity	O
,	O
speed	O
,	O
and	O
mechanics	O
of	O
signal	O
transmission	O
in	O
non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
have	O
been	O
classifications	O
based	O
on	O
the	O
larger	O
group	O
"	O
interneurons	O
"	O
where	O
pre-motor	O
nonspiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
are	O
referred	O
to	O
as	O
postlateral	O
(	O
PL	O
)	O
or	O
anteriolateral	O
(	O
AL	O
)	O
interneurons	O
,	O
with	O
AL	O
interneurons	O
divided	O
into	O
three	O
types	O
of	O
interneurons	O
based	O
on	O
staining	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Amacrine	O
cells	O
are	O
another	O
major	O
type	O
of	O
non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neuron	I-General_Concept
and	O
their	O
lifetime	O
involves	O
the	O
conversion	O
to	O
a	O
non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neuron	I-General_Concept
from	O
a	O
spiking	O
neuron	O
once	O
the	O
retina	O
obtains	O
maturity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Upon	O
the	O
opening	O
of	O
the	O
eyes	O
,	O
these	O
cells	O
begin	O
to	O
shed	O
their	O
sodium	O
ion	O
channels	O
and	O
become	O
non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
was	O
hypothesized	O
that	O
the	O
reason	O
for	O
its	O
establishment	O
as	O
a	O
spiking	O
neuron	O
was	O
to	O
help	O
with	O
the	O
maturation	O
of	O
the	O
retina	O
by	O
the	O
usage	O
of	O
action	B-Algorithm
potentials	I-Algorithm
themselves	O
,	O
and	O
not	O
necessarily	O
the	O
information	O
the	O
action	B-Algorithm
potential	I-Algorithm
carried	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
cells	O
extend	O
processes	O
spanning	O
>1mm	O
across	O
the	O
retina	O
and	O
actively	O
propagate	O
dendritic	O
spikes	B-Algorithm
to	O
and	O
from	O
the	O
soma	O
Additionally	O
,	O
a	O
spiking	O
GABAergic	O
nitric	O
oxide	O
producing	O
amacrine	O
cell	O
type	O
(	O
nNOS-1	O
AC	O
)	O
has	O
been	O
identified	O
in	O
mice	O
and	O
is	O
thought	O
to	O
play	O
a	O
role	O
in	O
precise	O
feature	O
extraction	O
from	O
light	O
through	O
a	O
range	O
of	O
noisy	O
background	O
luminance	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
interneurons	O
are	O
connected	O
to	O
one	O
another	O
via	O
synapses	B-Application
and	O
a	O
minority	O
,	O
approximately	O
15%	O
of	O
the	O
neurons	O
,	O
exhibit	O
bidirectional	O
capacity	O
and	O
were	O
excitatory	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Synapses	B-Application
are	O
known	O
as	O
gaps	O
between	O
neurons	O
which	O
facilitate	O
the	O
spread	O
of	O
a	O
message	O
via	O
neurotransmitters	O
that	O
may	O
excite	O
or	O
depress	O
the	O
subsequent	O
neuron	O
through	O
a	O
complex	O
cascade	O
of	O
electrochemical	O
events	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
speed	O
of	O
signal	O
transmission	O
at	O
200Hz	O
,	O
the	O
most	O
conserved	O
bandwidth	B-Algorithm
of	O
signal	O
transmission	O
for	O
non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
,	O
was	O
approximately	O
2500	O
bits/second	O
in	O
which	O
there	O
was	O
a	O
10-15	O
%	O
decrease	O
in	O
speed	O
as	O
the	O
signal	O
propagated	O
down	O
the	O
axon	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
other	O
non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
that	O
exhibit	O
conserved	O
signal	O
transmission	O
at	O
other	O
bandwidths	B-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
some	O
non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
are	O
specifically	O
involved	O
in	O
neuromuscular	O
modulation	O
,	O
studying	O
amacrine	O
cells	O
has	O
created	O
opportunities	O
to	O
discuss	O
the	O
role	O
of	O
non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
in	O
neuroplasticity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
amacrine	O
cells	O
,	O
which	O
are	O
a	O
type	O
of	O
non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
,	O
undergo	O
a	O
transformation	O
from	O
spiking	O
to	O
non-spiking	O
cells	O
,	O
there	O
have	O
been	O
many	O
studies	O
that	O
try	O
to	O
identify	O
the	O
functional	O
reasons	O
for	O
such	O
a	O
transformation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Starburst	O
amacrine	O
cells	O
use	O
action	B-Algorithm
potentials	I-Algorithm
during	O
retinal	O
development	O
,	O
and	O
once	O
the	O
retina	O
is	O
mature	O
,	O
these	O
cells	O
transform	O
into	O
non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
change	O
from	O
a	O
cell	O
that	O
can	O
generate	O
action	B-Algorithm
potentials	I-Algorithm
to	O
solely	O
functioning	O
off	O
of	O
a	O
graded	B-Algorithm
potential	I-Algorithm
is	O
drastic	O
,	O
and	O
may	O
provide	O
insight	O
into	O
why	O
the	O
two	O
kinds	O
of	O
neural	B-Architecture
networks	I-Architecture
exist	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
using	O
known	O
neurotransmitters	O
that	O
affect	O
non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
,	O
modeled	O
neural	B-Architecture
networks	I-Architecture
may	O
be	O
modified	O
to	O
either	O
ease	O
neuromuscular	O
hyperactivity	O
,	O
or	O
cells	O
themselves	O
may	O
be	O
transformed	O
to	O
be	O
able	O
to	O
provide	O
stronger	O
signals	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
calcium	O
transporter	O
study	O
indicates	O
the	O
effect	O
that	O
protein	O
channels	O
have	O
on	O
the	O
overall	O
fidelity	O
and	O
firing	O
capacity	O
of	O
the	O
non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
it	O
comes	O
down	O
to	O
chemical	O
systems	O
in	O
the	O
body	O
,	O
a	O
non-spiking	O
neural	B-Architecture
network	I-Architecture
is	O
definitely	O
an	O
area	O
of	O
exploration	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
amacrine	O
cell	O
study	O
poses	O
new	O
and	O
exciting	O
components	O
to	O
the	O
study	O
of	O
altering	O
the	O
chemical	O
and	O
mechanical	O
properties	O
of	O
the	O
non-spiking	O
neural	B-Architecture
networks	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
studying	O
how	O
neurons	O
transfer	O
information	O
,	O
it	O
becomes	O
more	O
possible	O
to	O
enhance	O
those	O
model	O
neural	B-Architecture
networks	I-Architecture
and	O
better	O
define	O
what	O
clear	O
information	O
streams	O
could	O
be	O
presented	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Perhaps	O
,	O
by	O
conjoining	O
this	O
study	O
with	O
the	O
many	O
neurotrophic	O
factors	O
present	O
,	O
neural	B-Architecture
networks	I-Architecture
could	O
be	O
manipulated	O
for	O
optimal	O
routing	O
,	O
and	O
consequently	O
optimal	O
learning	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
studying	O
the	O
nonspiking	B-General_Concept
neuron	I-General_Concept
,	O
the	O
field	O
of	O
neuroscience	O
has	O
benefited	O
by	O
having	O
workable	O
models	O
that	O
indicate	O
how	O
information	O
is	O
propagated	O
through	O
a	O
neural	B-Architecture
network	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
seem	O
to	O
be	O
more	O
sensitive	O
to	O
interference	O
given	O
that	O
they	O
exhibit	O
graded	B-Algorithm
potentials	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
So	O
for	O
non-spiking	B-General_Concept
neurons	I-General_Concept
,	O
any	O
stimulus	O
will	O
elicit	O
a	O
response	O
,	O
whereas	O
spiking	O
neurons	O
exhibit	O
action	B-Algorithm
potentials	I-Algorithm
which	O
function	O
as	O
an	O
"	O
all	O
or	O
none	O
"	O
entity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
continuing	O
to	O
achieve	O
a	O
workable	O
model	O
of	O
the	O
non-spiking	O
neural	B-Architecture
network	I-Architecture
,	O
its	O
applications	O
will	O
become	O
evident	O
.	O
</s>
