<s>
thumb|upright	O
=	O
1.2	O
|Crystalline	O
2×	O
2-atom	O
tin	O
selenide	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
grown	O
inside	O
a	O
single-wall	O
carbon	O
nanotube	O
(	O
tube	O
diameter	O
~	O
1	O
nm	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
is	O
a	O
nanostructure	O
in	O
the	O
form	O
of	O
a	O
wire	O
with	O
the	O
diameter	O
of	O
the	O
order	O
of	O
a	O
nanometre	O
(	O
10−9	O
metres	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
More	O
generally	O
,	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
can	O
be	O
defined	O
as	O
structures	O
that	O
have	O
a	O
thickness	O
or	O
diameter	O
constrained	O
to	O
tens	O
of	O
nanometers	O
or	O
less	O
and	O
an	O
unconstrained	O
length	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
different	O
types	O
of	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
exist	O
,	O
including	O
superconducting	O
(	O
e.g.	O
</s>
<s>
Ni	O
,	O
Pt	B-Operating_System
,	O
Au	O
,	O
Ag	O
)	O
,	O
semiconducting	O
(	O
e.g.	O
</s>
<s>
silicon	B-Algorithm
nanowires	I-Algorithm
(	O
SiNWs	B-Algorithm
)	O
,	O
InP	O
,	O
GaN	O
)	O
and	O
insulating	O
(	O
e.g.	O
</s>
<s>
Molecular	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
are	O
composed	O
of	O
repeating	O
molecular	O
units	O
either	O
organic	O
(	O
e.g.	O
</s>
<s>
thumb|A	O
noise-filtered	O
HRTEM	O
image	O
of	O
a	O
HgTe	O
extreme	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
embedded	O
down	O
the	O
central	O
pore	O
of	O
a	O
SWCNT	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Typical	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
exhibit	O
aspect	O
ratios	O
(	O
length-to-width	O
ratio	O
)	O
of	O
1000	O
or	O
more	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Nanowires	B-Architecture
have	O
many	O
interesting	O
properties	O
that	O
are	O
not	O
seen	O
in	O
bulk	O
or	O
3-D	O
(	O
three-dimensional	O
)	O
materials	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
is	O
because	O
electrons	O
in	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
are	O
quantum	O
confined	O
laterally	O
and	O
thus	O
occupy	O
energy	O
levels	O
that	O
are	O
different	O
from	O
the	O
traditional	O
continuum	O
of	O
energy	O
levels	O
or	O
bands	O
found	O
in	O
bulk	O
materials	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Peculiar	O
features	O
of	O
this	O
quantum	O
confinement	O
exhibited	O
by	O
certain	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
manifest	O
themselves	O
in	O
discrete	O
values	O
of	O
the	O
electrical	O
conductance	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Examples	O
of	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
include	O
inorganic	O
molecular	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
(	O
Mo6S9−xIx	O
,	O
Li2Mo6Se6	O
)	O
,	O
which	O
can	O
have	O
a	O
diameter	O
of	O
0.9nm	O
and	O
be	O
hundreds	O
of	O
micrometers	O
long	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Ni	O
,	O
Pt	B-Operating_System
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
many	O
applications	O
where	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
may	O
become	O
important	O
in	O
electronic	O
,	O
opto-electronic	O
and	O
nanoelectromechanical	O
devices	O
,	O
as	O
additives	O
in	O
advanced	O
composites	O
,	O
for	O
metallic	O
interconnects	O
in	O
nanoscale	O
quantum	O
devices	O
,	O
as	O
field-emitters	O
and	O
as	O
leads	O
for	O
biomolecular	O
nanosensors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
two	O
basic	O
approaches	O
to	O
synthesizing	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
:	O
top-down	O
and	O
bottom-up	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
top-down	O
approach	O
reduces	O
a	O
large	O
piece	O
of	O
material	O
to	O
small	O
pieces	O
,	O
by	O
various	O
means	O
such	O
as	O
lithography	O
,	O
milling	O
or	O
thermal	B-Algorithm
oxidation	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
bottom-up	O
approach	O
synthesizes	O
the	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
by	O
combining	O
constituent	O
adatoms	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Initial	O
synthesis	O
via	O
either	O
method	O
may	O
often	O
be	O
followed	O
by	O
a	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
thermal	O
treatment	O
step	O
,	O
often	O
involving	O
a	O
form	O
of	O
self-limiting	O
oxidation	O
,	O
to	O
fine	O
tune	O
the	O
size	O
and	O
aspect	O
ratio	O
of	O
the	O
structures	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
After	O
the	O
bottom-up	O
synthesis	O
,	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
can	O
be	O
integrated	O
using	O
pick-and-place	O
techniques	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Nanowire	B-Architecture
production	O
uses	O
several	O
common	O
laboratory	O
techniques	O
,	O
including	O
suspension	O
,	O
electrochemical	O
deposition	O
,	O
vapor	O
deposition	O
,	O
and	O
VLS	O
growth	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Ion	O
track	O
technology	O
enables	O
growing	O
homogeneous	O
and	O
segmented	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
down	O
to	O
8nm	O
diameter	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
oxidation	O
rate	O
is	O
controlled	O
by	O
diameter	O
,	O
thermal	B-Algorithm
oxidation	I-Algorithm
steps	O
are	O
often	O
applied	O
to	O
tune	O
their	O
morphology	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
suspended	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
is	O
a	O
wire	O
produced	O
in	O
a	O
high-vacuum	O
chamber	O
held	O
at	O
the	O
longitudinal	O
extremities	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Suspended	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
can	O
be	O
produced	O
by	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
common	O
technique	O
for	O
creating	O
a	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
is	O
vapor-liquid-solid	O
method	O
(	O
VLS	O
)	O
,	O
which	O
was	O
first	O
reported	O
by	O
Wagner	O
and	O
Ellis	O
in	O
1964	O
for	O
silicon	O
whiskers	O
with	O
diameters	O
ranging	O
from	O
hundreds	O
of	O
nm	O
to	O
hundreds	O
of	O
µm	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
process	O
can	O
produce	O
high-quality	O
crystalline	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
of	O
many	O
semiconductor	O
materials	O
,	O
for	O
example	O
,	O
VLS	O
–	O
grown	O
single	O
crystalline	O
silicon	B-Algorithm
nanowires	I-Algorithm
(	O
SiNWs	B-Algorithm
)	O
with	O
smooth	O
surfaces	O
could	O
have	O
excellent	O
properties	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
ultra-large	O
elasticity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
method	O
uses	O
a	O
source	O
material	O
from	O
either	O
laser	O
ablated	B-Algorithm
particles	O
or	O
a	O
feed	O
gas	O
such	O
as	O
silane	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
,	O
the	O
best	O
catalysts	O
are	O
liquid	O
metal	O
(	O
such	O
as	O
gold	O
)	O
nanoclusters	O
,	O
which	O
can	O
either	O
be	O
self-assembled	O
from	O
a	O
thin	O
film	O
by	O
dewetting	O
,	O
or	O
purchased	O
in	O
colloidal	O
form	O
and	O
deposited	O
on	O
a	O
substrate	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Simply	O
turning	O
off	O
the	O
source	O
can	O
adjust	O
the	O
final	O
length	O
of	O
the	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Switching	O
sources	O
while	O
still	O
in	O
the	O
growth	O
phase	O
can	O
create	O
compound	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
with	O
super-lattices	O
of	O
alternating	O
materials	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
a	O
method	O
termed	O
ENGRAVE	O
(	O
Encoded	O
Nanowire	B-Architecture
GRowth	O
and	O
Appearance	O
through	O
VLS	O
and	O
Etching	O
)	O
developed	O
by	O
the	O
Cahoon	O
Lab	O
at	O
UNC-Chapel	O
Hill	O
allows	O
for	O
nanometer-scale	O
morphological	O
control	O
via	O
rapid	O
in	O
situ	O
dopant	O
modulation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
single-step	O
vapour	O
phase	O
reaction	O
at	O
elevated	O
temperature	O
synthesises	O
inorganic	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
such	O
as	O
Mo6S9−xIx	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
From	O
another	O
point	O
of	O
view	O
,	O
such	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
are	O
cluster	O
polymers	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Similar	O
to	O
VLS	O
synthesis	O
,	O
VSS	O
(	O
vapor-solid-solid	O
)	O
synthesis	O
of	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
(	O
NWs	O
)	O
proceeds	O
through	O
thermolytic	O
decomposition	O
of	O
a	O
silicon	O
precursor	O
(	O
typically	O
phenylsilane	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
such	O
type	O
of	O
synthesis	O
is	O
widely	O
used	O
to	O
synthesise	O
metal	O
silicide/germanide	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
through	O
VSS	O
alloying	O
between	O
a	O
copper	O
substrate	O
and	O
a	O
silicon/germanium	O
precursor	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Solution-phase	O
synthesis	O
refers	O
to	O
techniques	O
that	O
grow	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
in	O
solution	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
They	O
can	O
produce	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
of	O
many	O
types	O
of	O
materials	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
technique	O
is	O
particularly	O
versatile	O
at	O
producing	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
of	O
gold	O
,	O
lead	O
,	O
platinum	B-Operating_System
,	O
and	O
silver	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
supercritical	O
fluid-liquid-solid	O
growth	O
method	O
can	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
synthesize	O
semiconductor	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
,	O
e.g.	O
,	O
Si	O
and	O
Ge	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
more	O
of	O
the	O
semiconductor	O
solute	O
is	O
added	O
from	O
the	O
supercritical	O
phase	O
(	O
due	O
to	O
a	O
concentration	O
gradient	O
)	O
,	O
a	O
solid	O
crystallite	O
precipitates	O
,	O
and	O
a	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
grows	O
uniaxially	O
from	O
the	O
nanocrystal	O
seed	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Protein	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
in	O
spider	O
silk	O
have	O
been	O
formed	O
by	O
rolling	O
a	O
droplet	O
of	O
spider	O
silk	O
solution	O
over	O
a	O
superhydrophobic	O
pillar	O
structure	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
vast	O
majority	O
of	O
nanowire-formation	O
mechanisms	O
are	O
explained	O
through	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
catalytic	O
nanoparticles	O
,	O
which	O
drive	O
the	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
growth	O
and	O
are	O
either	O
added	O
intentionally	O
or	O
generated	O
during	O
the	O
growth	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
can	O
be	O
also	O
grown	O
without	O
the	O
help	O
of	O
catalysts	O
,	O
which	O
gives	O
an	O
advantage	O
of	O
pure	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
and	O
minimizes	O
the	O
number	O
of	O
technological	O
steps	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
mechanisms	O
for	O
catalyst-free	O
growth	O
of	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
(	O
or	O
whiskers	O
)	O
were	O
known	O
from	O
1950s	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
simplest	O
methods	O
to	O
obtain	O
metal	O
oxide	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
use	O
ordinary	O
heating	O
of	O
the	O
metals	O
,	O
e.g.	O
</s>
<s>
Spontaneous	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
formation	O
by	O
non-catalytic	O
methods	O
were	O
explained	O
by	O
the	O
dislocation	O
present	O
in	O
specific	O
directions	O
or	O
the	O
growth	O
anisotropy	O
of	O
various	O
crystal	O
faces	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
More	O
recently	O
,	O
after	O
microscopy	O
advancement	O
,	O
the	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
growth	O
driven	O
by	O
screw	O
dislocations	O
or	O
twin	O
boundaries	O
were	O
demonstrated	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
picture	O
on	O
the	O
right	O
shows	O
a	O
single	O
atomic	O
layer	O
growth	O
on	O
the	O
tip	O
of	O
CuO	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
,	O
observed	O
by	O
in	O
situ	O
TEM	O
microscopy	O
during	O
the	O
non-catalytic	O
synthesis	O
of	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Atomic-scale	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
can	O
also	O
form	O
completely	O
self-organised	O
without	O
need	O
for	O
defects	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
rare-earth	O
silicide	O
(	O
RESi2	O
)	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
of	O
few	O
nm	O
width	O
and	O
height	O
and	O
several	O
100nm	O
length	O
form	O
on	O
silicon(001 )	O
substrates	O
which	O
are	O
covered	O
with	O
a	O
sub-monolayer	O
of	O
a	O
rare	O
earth	O
metal	O
and	O
subsequently	O
annealed	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
lateral	O
dimensions	O
of	O
the	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
confine	O
the	O
electrons	O
in	O
such	O
a	O
way	O
that	O
the	O
system	O
resembles	O
a	O
(	O
quasi	O
-	O
)	O
one-dimensional	O
metal	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Metallic	O
RESi2	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
form	O
on	O
silicon(hhk )	O
as	O
well	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
emerging	O
field	O
is	O
to	O
use	O
DNA	O
strands	O
as	O
scaffolds	O
for	O
metallic	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
synthesis	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
method	O
is	O
investigated	O
both	O
for	O
the	O
synthesis	O
of	O
metallic	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
in	O
electronic	O
components	O
and	O
for	O
biosensing	O
applications	O
,	O
in	O
which	O
they	O
allow	O
the	O
transduction	O
of	O
a	O
DNA	O
strand	O
into	O
a	O
metallic	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
that	O
can	O
be	O
electrically	O
detected	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
simple	O
method	O
to	O
produce	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
with	O
defined	O
geometries	O
has	O
been	O
recently	O
reported	O
using	O
conventional	O
optical	O
lithography	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
nanogaps	O
are	O
then	O
used	O
as	O
shadow	O
mask	O
for	O
generating	O
individual	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
with	O
precise	O
lengths	O
and	O
widths	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
technique	O
allows	O
to	O
produce	O
individual	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
below	O
20nm	O
in	O
width	O
in	O
a	O
scalable	O
way	O
out	O
of	O
several	O
metallic	O
and	O
metal	O
oxide	O
materials	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Several	O
physical	O
reasons	O
predict	O
that	O
the	O
conductivity	O
of	O
a	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
will	O
be	O
much	O
less	O
than	O
that	O
of	O
the	O
corresponding	O
bulk	O
material	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Copper	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
less	O
than	O
40nm	O
wide	O
will	O
shorten	O
the	O
mean	O
free	O
path	O
to	O
the	O
wire	O
width	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Silver	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
have	O
very	O
different	O
electrical	O
and	O
thermal	O
conductivity	O
from	O
bulk	O
silver	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Nanowires	B-Architecture
also	O
show	O
other	O
peculiar	O
electrical	O
properties	O
due	O
to	O
their	O
size	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Unlike	O
single	O
wall	O
carbon	O
nanotubes	O
,	O
whose	O
motion	O
of	O
electrons	O
can	O
fall	O
under	O
the	O
regime	O
of	O
ballistic	O
transport	O
(	O
meaning	O
the	O
electrons	O
can	O
travel	O
freely	O
from	O
one	O
electrode	O
to	O
the	O
other	O
)	O
,	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
conductivity	O
is	O
strongly	O
influenced	O
by	O
edge	O
effects	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
edge	O
effects	O
come	O
from	O
atoms	O
that	O
lay	O
at	O
the	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
surface	O
and	O
are	O
not	O
fully	O
bonded	O
to	O
neighboring	O
atoms	O
like	O
the	O
atoms	O
within	O
the	O
bulk	O
of	O
the	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
unbonded	O
atoms	O
are	O
often	O
a	O
source	O
of	O
defects	O
within	O
the	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
,	O
and	O
may	O
cause	O
the	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
to	O
conduct	O
electricity	O
more	O
poorly	O
than	O
the	O
bulk	O
material	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
a	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
shrinks	O
in	O
size	O
,	O
the	O
surface	O
atoms	O
become	O
more	O
numerous	O
compared	O
to	O
the	O
atoms	O
within	O
the	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
,	O
and	O
edge	O
effects	O
become	O
more	O
important	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
the	O
energy	O
of	O
the	O
electrons	O
going	O
through	O
a	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
can	O
assume	O
only	O
discrete	O
values	O
,	O
which	O
are	O
multiples	O
of	O
the	O
conductance	O
quantum	O
G	O
=	O
2e2/h	O
(	O
where	O
e	O
is	O
the	O
charge	O
of	O
the	O
electron	O
and	O
h	O
is	O
the	O
Planck	O
constant	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
quantization	O
has	O
been	O
demonstrated	O
by	O
measuring	O
the	O
conductivity	O
of	O
a	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
suspended	O
between	O
two	O
electrodes	O
while	O
pulling	O
it	O
:	O
as	O
its	O
diameter	O
reduces	O
,	O
its	O
conductivity	O
decreases	O
in	O
a	O
stepwise	O
fashion	O
and	O
the	O
plateaus	O
correspond	O
to	O
multiples	O
of	O
G	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
practical	O
terms	O
,	O
this	O
means	O
that	O
a	O
MOSFET	B-Architecture
with	O
such	O
nanoscale	O
silicon	O
fins	O
,	O
when	O
used	O
in	O
digital	O
applications	O
,	O
will	O
need	O
a	O
higher	O
gate	O
(	O
control	O
)	O
voltage	O
to	O
switch	O
the	O
transistor	B-Application
on	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
To	O
incorporate	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
technology	O
into	O
industrial	O
applications	O
,	O
researchers	O
in	O
2008	O
developed	O
a	O
method	O
of	O
welding	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
together	O
:	O
a	O
sacrificial	O
metal	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
is	O
placed	O
adjacent	O
to	O
the	O
ends	O
of	O
the	O
pieces	O
to	O
be	O
joined	O
(	O
using	O
the	O
manipulators	O
of	O
a	O
scanning	O
electron	O
microscope	O
)	O
;	O
then	O
an	O
electric	O
current	O
is	O
applied	O
,	O
which	O
fuses	O
the	O
wire	O
ends	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
with	O
diameters	O
less	O
than	O
10nm	O
,	O
existing	O
welding	O
techniques	O
,	O
which	O
require	O
precise	O
control	O
of	O
the	O
heating	O
mechanism	O
and	O
which	O
may	O
introduce	O
the	O
possibility	O
of	O
damage	O
,	O
will	O
not	O
be	O
practical	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Recently	O
scientists	O
discovered	O
that	O
single-crystalline	O
ultrathin	O
gold	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
with	O
diameters	O
~	O
3	O
–	O
10nm	O
can	O
be	O
"	O
cold-welded	O
"	O
together	O
within	O
seconds	O
by	O
mechanical	O
contact	O
alone	O
,	O
and	O
under	O
remarkably	O
low	O
applied	O
pressures	O
(	O
unlike	O
macro	O
-	O
and	O
micro-scale	O
cold	O
welding	O
process	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
High-resolution	O
transmission	O
electron	O
microscopy	O
and	O
in	O
situ	O
measurements	O
reveal	O
that	O
the	O
welds	O
are	O
nearly	O
perfect	O
,	O
with	O
the	O
same	O
crystal	O
orientation	O
,	O
strength	O
and	O
electrical	O
conductivity	O
as	O
the	O
rest	O
of	O
the	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Nanowire	B-Architecture
welds	O
were	O
also	O
demonstrated	O
between	O
gold	O
and	O
silver	O
,	O
and	O
silver	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
(	O
with	O
diameters	O
~	O
5	O
–	O
15nm	O
)	O
at	O
near	O
room	O
temperature	O
,	O
indicating	O
that	O
this	O
technique	O
may	O
be	O
generally	O
applicable	O
for	O
ultrathin	O
metallic	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
study	O
of	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
mechanics	O
has	O
boomed	O
since	O
the	O
advent	O
of	O
the	O
atomic	O
force	O
microscope	O
(	O
AFM	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
associated	O
technologies	O
which	O
have	O
enabled	O
direct	O
study	O
of	O
the	O
response	O
of	O
the	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
to	O
an	O
applied	O
load	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Specifically	O
,	O
a	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
can	O
be	O
clamped	O
from	O
one	O
end	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
free	O
end	O
displaced	O
by	O
an	O
AFM	O
tip	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
allows	O
for	O
construction	O
of	O
a	O
force	O
vs.	O
displacement	O
curve	O
,	O
which	O
can	O
be	O
converted	O
to	O
a	O
stress	B-Algorithm
vs.	I-Algorithm
strain	I-Algorithm
curve	O
if	O
the	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
dimensions	O
are	O
known	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
From	O
the	O
stress-strain	B-Algorithm
curve	I-Algorithm
,	O
the	O
elastic	O
constant	O
known	O
as	O
the	O
Young	O
’s	O
Modulus	O
can	O
be	O
derived	O
,	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
the	O
toughness	O
,	O
and	O
degree	O
of	O
strain-hardening	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
elastic	O
component	O
of	O
the	O
stress-strain	B-Algorithm
curve	I-Algorithm
described	O
by	O
the	O
Young	O
’s	O
Modulus	O
,	O
has	O
been	O
reported	O
for	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
,	O
however	O
the	O
modulus	O
depends	O
very	O
strongly	O
on	O
the	O
microstructure	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Experimentally	O
,	O
gold	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
have	O
been	O
shown	O
to	O
have	O
a	O
Young	O
’s	O
modulus	O
which	O
is	O
effectively	O
diameter	O
independent	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Similarly	O
,	O
nano-indentation	O
was	O
applied	O
to	O
study	O
the	O
modulus	O
of	O
silver	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
,	O
and	O
again	O
the	O
modulus	O
was	O
found	O
to	O
be	O
88	O
GPa	O
,	O
very	O
similar	O
to	O
the	O
modulus	O
of	O
bulk	O
Silver	O
(	O
85	O
GPa	O
)	O
These	O
works	O
demonstrated	O
that	O
the	O
analytically	O
determined	O
modulus	O
dependence	O
seems	O
to	O
be	O
suppressed	O
in	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
samples	O
where	O
the	O
crystalline	O
structure	O
highly	O
resembles	O
that	O
of	O
the	O
bulk	O
system	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
contrast	O
,	O
Si	O
solid	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
have	O
been	O
studied	O
,	O
and	O
shown	O
to	O
have	O
a	O
decreasing	O
modulus	O
with	O
diameter	O
The	O
authors	O
of	O
that	O
work	O
report	O
a	O
Si	O
modulus	O
which	O
is	O
half	O
that	O
of	O
the	O
bulk	O
value	O
,	O
and	O
they	O
suggest	O
that	O
the	O
density	O
of	O
point	O
defects	O
,	O
and	O
or	O
loss	O
of	O
chemical	O
stoichiometry	O
may	O
account	O
for	O
this	O
difference	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
plastic	O
component	O
of	O
the	O
stress	B-Algorithm
strain	I-Algorithm
curve	I-Algorithm
(	O
or	O
more	O
accurately	O
the	O
onset	O
of	O
plasticity	O
)	O
is	O
described	O
by	O
the	O
yield	O
strength	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
a	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
is	O
shrunk	O
to	O
a	O
single	O
line	O
of	O
atoms	O
,	O
the	O
strength	O
should	O
theoretically	O
increase	O
all	O
the	O
way	O
to	O
the	O
molecular	O
tensile	O
strength	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Gold	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
have	O
been	O
described	O
as	O
‘	O
ultrahigh	O
strength’	O
due	O
to	O
the	O
extreme	O
increase	O
in	O
yield	O
strength	O
,	O
approaching	O
the	O
theoretical	O
value	O
of	O
E/10	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
these	O
reasons	O
,	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
(	O
historically	O
described	O
as	O
'	O
whiskers	O
 '	O
)	O
have	O
been	O
used	O
extensively	O
in	O
composites	O
for	O
increasing	O
the	O
overall	O
strength	O
of	O
a	O
material	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Moreover	O
,	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
continue	O
to	O
be	O
actively	O
studied	O
,	O
with	O
research	O
aiming	O
to	O
translate	O
enhanced	O
mechanical	O
properties	O
to	O
novel	O
devices	O
in	O
the	O
fields	O
of	O
MEMS	B-Architecture
or	O
NEMS	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
thumb|Atomistic	O
simulation	O
result	O
for	O
formation	O
of	O
inversion	O
channel	O
(	O
electron	O
density	O
)	O
and	O
attainment	O
of	O
threshold	O
voltage	O
(	O
IV	O
)	O
in	O
a	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
MOSFET	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Nanowires	B-Architecture
can	O
be	O
used	O
for	O
MOSFETs	B-Architecture
(	O
MOS	O
field-effect	O
transistors	B-Application
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
MOS	B-Architecture
transistors	I-Architecture
are	O
used	O
widely	O
as	O
fundamental	O
building	O
elements	O
in	O
today	O
's	O
electronic	O
circuits	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
predicted	O
by	O
Moore	O
's	O
law	O
,	O
the	O
dimension	O
of	O
MOS	B-Architecture
transistors	I-Architecture
is	O
shrinking	O
smaller	O
and	O
smaller	O
into	O
nanoscale	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
of	O
the	O
key	O
challenges	O
of	O
building	O
future	O
nanoscale	O
MOS	B-Architecture
transistors	I-Architecture
is	O
ensuring	O
good	O
gate	O
control	O
over	O
the	O
channel	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Due	O
to	O
the	O
high	O
aspect	O
ratio	O
,	O
if	O
the	O
gate	O
dielectric	O
is	O
wrapped	O
around	O
the	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
channel	O
,	O
we	O
can	O
get	O
good	O
control	O
of	O
channel	O
electrostatic	O
potential	O
,	O
thereby	O
turning	O
the	O
transistor	B-Application
on	O
and	O
off	O
efficiently	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Due	O
to	O
the	O
unique	O
one-dimensional	O
structure	O
with	O
remarkable	O
optical	O
properties	O
,	O
the	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
also	O
opens	O
new	O
opportunities	O
for	O
realizing	O
high	O
efficiency	O
photovoltaic	O
devices	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Compared	O
with	O
its	O
bulk	O
counterparts	O
,	O
the	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
solar	O
cells	O
are	O
less	O
sensitive	O
to	O
impurities	O
due	O
to	O
bulk	O
recombination	O
,	O
and	O
thus	O
silicon	O
wafers	O
with	O
lower	O
purity	O
can	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
achieve	O
acceptable	O
efficiency	O
,	O
leading	O
to	O
the	O
a	O
reduction	O
on	O
material	O
consumption	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
To	O
create	O
active	O
electronic	O
elements	O
,	O
the	O
first	O
key	O
step	O
was	O
to	O
chemically	O
dope	O
a	O
semiconductor	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
has	O
already	O
been	O
done	O
to	O
individual	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
to	O
create	O
p-type	O
and	O
n-type	O
semiconductors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
After	O
p-n	O
junctions	O
were	O
built	O
with	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
,	O
the	O
next	O
logical	O
step	O
was	O
to	O
build	O
logic	O
gates	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
connecting	O
several	O
p-n	O
junctions	O
together	O
,	O
researchers	O
have	O
been	O
able	O
to	O
create	O
the	O
basis	O
of	O
all	O
logic	O
circuits	O
:	O
the	O
AND	O
,	O
OR	O
,	O
and	O
NOT	O
gates	O
have	O
all	O
been	O
built	O
from	O
semiconductor	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
crossings	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
August	O
2012	O
,	O
researchers	O
reported	O
constructing	O
the	O
first	O
NAND	O
gate	O
from	O
undoped	O
silicon	B-Algorithm
nanowires	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
possible	O
that	O
semiconductor	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
crossings	O
will	O
be	O
important	O
to	O
the	O
future	O
of	O
digital	O
computing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Though	O
there	O
are	O
other	O
uses	O
for	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
beyond	O
these	O
,	O
the	O
only	O
ones	O
that	O
actually	O
take	O
advantage	O
of	O
physics	O
in	O
the	O
nanometer	O
regime	O
are	O
electronic	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
addition	O
,	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
are	O
also	O
being	O
studied	O
for	O
use	O
as	O
photon	O
ballistic	O
waveguides	O
as	O
interconnects	O
in	O
quantum	O
dot/quantum	O
effect	O
well	O
photon	O
logic	O
arrays	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
two	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
acting	O
as	O
photon	O
waveguides	O
cross	O
each	O
other	O
the	O
juncture	O
acts	O
as	O
a	O
quantum	O
dot	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Conducting	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
offer	O
the	O
possibility	O
of	O
connecting	O
molecular-scale	O
entities	O
in	O
a	O
molecular	O
computer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Dispersions	O
of	O
conducting	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
in	O
different	O
polymers	B-Language
are	O
being	O
investigated	O
for	O
use	O
as	O
transparent	O
electrodes	O
for	O
flexible	O
flat-screen	O
displays	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Because	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
appear	O
in	O
bundles	O
,	O
they	O
may	O
be	O
used	O
as	O
tribological	O
additives	O
to	O
improve	O
friction	O
characteristics	O
and	O
reliability	O
of	O
electronic	O
transducers	O
and	O
actuators	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Because	O
of	O
their	O
high	O
aspect	O
ratio	O
,	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
are	O
also	O
uniquely	O
suited	O
to	O
dielectrophoretic	O
manipulation	O
,	O
which	O
offers	O
a	O
low-cost	O
,	O
bottom-up	O
approach	O
to	O
integrating	O
suspended	O
dielectric	O
metal	O
oxide	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
in	O
electronic	O
devices	O
such	O
as	O
UV	O
,	O
water	O
vapor	O
,	O
and	O
ethanol	O
sensors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Due	O
to	O
their	O
large	O
surface-to-volume	O
ratio	O
,	O
physico-chemical	O
reactions	O
are	O
reported	O
to	O
be	O
favourable	O
on	O
the	O
surface	O
of	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
may	O
facilitate	O
degradation	O
mechanisms	O
to	O
operate	O
in	O
the	O
some	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
under	O
certain	O
processing	O
conditions	O
such	O
as	O
in	O
a	O
plasma	O
environment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
previously	O
mentioned	O
,	O
the	O
high	O
aspect	O
ratio	O
of	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
makes	O
this	O
nanostructures	O
suitable	O
for	O
electrochemical	O
sensing	O
with	O
the	O
potential	O
for	O
ultimate	O
sensitivity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
of	O
the	O
challenge	O
for	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
in	O
commercial	O
products	O
is	O
related	O
to	O
the	O
isolation	O
,	O
handling	O
,	O
and	O
integration	O
of	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
in	O
an	O
electrical	O
circuit	O
when	O
using	O
the	O
conventional	O
and	O
manual	O
pick-and-place	O
approach	O
,	O
leading	O
to	O
a	O
very	O
limited	O
throughput	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Recent	O
developments	O
in	O
the	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
synthesis	O
methods	O
now	O
allow	O
for	O
parallel	O
production	O
of	O
single	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
devices	O
with	O
useful	O
applications	O
in	O
electrochemistry	O
,	O
photonics	O
,	O
and	O
gas	O
-	O
and	O
biosensing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Nanowire	B-Algorithm
lasers	I-Algorithm
are	O
nano-scaled	O
lasers	O
with	O
potential	O
as	O
optical	O
interconnects	O
and	O
optical	O
data	O
communication	O
on	O
chip	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Nanowire	B-Algorithm
lasers	I-Algorithm
are	O
built	O
from	O
III	O
–	O
V	O
semiconductor	O
heterostructures	O
,	O
the	O
high	O
refractive	O
index	O
allows	O
for	O
low	O
optical	O
loss	O
in	O
the	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
core	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Nanowire	B-Algorithm
lasers	I-Algorithm
are	O
subwavelength	O
lasers	O
of	O
only	O
a	O
few	O
hundred	O
nanometers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Nanowire	B-Algorithm
lasers	I-Algorithm
are	O
Fabry	O
–	O
Perot	O
resonator	O
cavities	O
defined	O
by	O
the	O
end	O
facets	O
of	O
the	O
wire	O
with	O
high-reflectivity	O
,	O
recent	O
developments	O
have	O
demonstrated	O
repetition	O
rates	O
greater	O
than	O
200GHz	O
offering	O
possibilities	O
for	O
optical	O
chip	O
level	O
communications	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
these	O
devices	O
are	O
fabricated	O
using	O
semiconductor	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
as	O
the	O
transistor	B-Application
element	O
the	O
binding	O
of	O
a	O
chemical	O
or	O
biological	O
species	O
to	O
the	O
surface	O
of	O
the	O
sensor	O
can	O
lead	O
to	O
the	O
depletion	O
or	O
accumulation	O
of	O
charge	O
carriers	O
in	O
the	O
"	O
bulk	O
"	O
of	O
the	O
nanometer	O
diameter	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
i.e.	O
</s>
<s>
Moreover	O
,	O
the	O
wire	O
,	O
which	O
serves	O
as	O
a	O
tunable	O
conducting	O
channel	O
,	O
is	O
in	O
close	O
contact	O
with	O
the	O
sensing	O
environment	O
of	O
the	O
target	O
,	O
leading	O
to	O
a	O
short	O
response	O
time	O
,	O
along	O
with	O
orders	O
of	O
magnitude	O
increase	O
in	O
the	O
sensitivity	O
of	O
the	O
device	O
as	O
a	O
result	O
of	O
the	O
huge	O
S/V	O
ratio	O
of	O
the	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
have	O
been	O
used	O
for	O
the	O
preparation	O
of	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
,	O
Si	O
is	O
usually	O
the	O
material	O
of	O
choice	O
when	O
fabricating	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
FET-based	O
chemo/biosensors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Several	O
examples	O
of	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
silicon	O
nanowire(SiNW )	O
sensing	O
devices	O
include	O
the	O
ultra	O
sensitive	O
,	O
real-time	O
sensing	O
of	O
biomarker	O
proteins	O
for	O
cancer	O
,	O
detection	O
of	O
single	O
virus	O
particles	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
detection	O
of	O
nitro-aromatic	O
explosive	O
materials	O
such	O
as	O
2	O
,	O
4	O
,	O
6	O
Tri-nitrotoluene	O
(	O
TNT	O
)	O
in	O
sensitives	O
superior	O
to	O
these	O
of	O
canines	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Silicon	B-Algorithm
nanowires	I-Algorithm
could	O
also	O
be	O
used	O
in	O
their	O
twisted	O
form	O
,	O
as	O
electromechanical	O
devices	O
,	O
to	O
measure	O
intermolecular	O
forces	O
with	O
great	O
precision	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Thus	O
,	O
for	O
optimal	O
sensing	O
,	O
the	O
Debye	O
length	O
must	O
be	O
carefully	O
selected	O
for	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
FET	O
measurements	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
approach	O
of	O
overcoming	O
this	O
limitation	O
employs	O
fragmentation	O
of	O
the	O
antibody-capturing	O
units	O
and	O
control	O
over	O
surface	O
receptor	O
density	O
,	O
allowing	O
more	O
intimate	O
binding	O
to	O
the	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
of	O
the	O
target	O
protein	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
a	O
minimal	O
introduction	O
of	O
stress	O
and	O
bending	O
to	O
transmission	O
electron	O
microscopy	O
(	O
TEM	O
)	O
samples	O
(	O
lamellae	O
,	O
thin	O
films	O
,	O
and	O
other	O
mechanically	O
and	O
beam	O
sensitive	O
samples	O
)	O
,	O
when	O
transferring	O
inside	O
a	O
focused	O
ion	O
beam	O
(	O
FIB	O
)	O
,	O
flexible	O
metallic	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
can	O
be	O
attached	O
to	O
a	O
typically	O
rigid	O
micromanipulator	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
main	O
advantages	O
of	O
this	O
method	O
include	O
a	O
significant	O
reduction	O
of	O
sample	O
preparation	O
time	O
(	O
quick	O
welding	O
and	O
cutting	O
of	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
at	O
low	O
beam	O
current	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
minimization	O
of	O
stress-induced	O
bending	O
,	O
Pt	B-Operating_System
contamination	O
,	O
and	O
ion	O
beam	O
damage	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Corn-like	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
is	O
a	O
one-dimensional	O
nanowire	B-Architecture
with	O
interconnected	O
nanoparticles	O
on	O
the	O
surface	O
,	O
providing	O
a	O
large	O
percentage	O
of	O
reactive	O
facets	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
TiO2	O
corn-like	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
were	O
first	O
prepared	O
by	O
a	O
surface	O
modification	O
concept	O
using	O
surface	O
tension	O
stress	O
mechanism	O
through	O
a	O
two	O
consecutive	O
hydrothermal	O
operation	O
,	O
and	O
showed	O
an	O
increase	O
of	O
12%	O
in	O
dye-sensitized	O
solar	O
cell	O
efficiency	O
the	O
light	O
scattering	O
layer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
CdSe	O
corn-like	O
nanowires	B-Architecture
grown	O
by	O
chemical	O
bath	O
deposition	O
and	O
corn-like	O
γ-Fe2O3	O
@SiO2	O
@TiO2	O
photocatalysts	O
induced	O
by	O
magnetic	O
dipole	O
interactions	O
have	O
been	O
also	O
reported	O
previously	O
.	O
</s>
