<s>
The	O
lithium	B-Algorithm
–	I-Algorithm
sulfur	I-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
(	O
Li	O
–	O
S	O
battery	O
)	O
is	O
a	O
type	O
of	O
rechargeable	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
low	O
atomic	O
weight	O
of	O
lithium	B-Language
and	O
moderate	O
atomic	O
weight	O
of	O
sulfur	O
means	O
that	O
Li	O
–	O
S	O
batteries	O
are	O
relatively	O
light	O
(	O
about	O
the	O
density	O
of	O
water	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lithium	B-Algorithm
–	I-Algorithm
sulfur	I-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
may	O
displace	O
lithium-ion	O
cells	O
because	O
of	O
their	O
higher	O
energy	O
density	O
and	O
reduced	B-Operating_System
cost	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
is	O
due	O
to	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
sulfur	O
instead	O
of	O
cobalt	O
,	O
a	O
common	O
element	O
in	O
lithium-ion	O
batteries	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Li	O
–	O
S	O
batteries	O
offer	O
specific	O
energies	O
on	O
the	O
order	O
of	O
550Wh/kg	O
,	O
while	O
lithium-ion	O
batteries	O
are	O
in	O
the	O
range	O
of	O
150260Wh/kg	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Li	O
–	O
S	O
batteries	O
with	O
up	O
to	O
1,500	O
charge	B-Algorithm
and	I-Algorithm
discharge	I-Algorithm
cycles	I-Algorithm
were	O
demonstrated	O
in	O
2017	O
,	O
but	O
cycle	B-Algorithm
life	I-Algorithm
tests	O
at	O
commercial	O
scale	O
and	O
with	O
lean	O
electrolyte	O
have	O
not	O
been	O
completed	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Issues	O
that	O
have	O
slowed	O
acceptance	O
include	O
the	O
polysulfide	O
"	O
shuttle	O
"	O
effect	O
that	O
is	O
responsible	O
for	O
the	O
progressive	O
leakage	O
of	O
active	O
material	O
from	O
the	O
cathode	O
,	O
resulting	O
in	O
too-few	O
recharge	B-Architecture
cycles	B-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
LiS	O
batteries	O
were	O
invented	O
in	O
the	O
1960s	O
,	O
when	O
Herbert	O
and	O
Ulam	O
patented	O
a	O
primary	O
battery	O
employing	O
lithium	B-Language
or	O
lithium	B-Language
alloys	O
as	O
anodic	O
material	O
,	O
sulfur	O
as	O
cathodic	O
material	O
and	O
an	O
electrolyte	O
composed	O
of	O
aliphatic	O
saturated	O
amines	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
the	O
end	O
of	O
the	O
1980s	O
a	O
rechargeable	B-Architecture
LiS	O
battery	O
was	O
demonstrated	O
employing	O
ethers	O
,	O
in	O
particular	O
DOL	O
,	O
as	O
the	O
electrolyte	O
solvent	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Specifically	O
,	O
Li-S	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
need	O
to	O
achieve	O
a	O
sulfur	O
loading	O
of	O
>5mg	O
cm−2	O
,	O
a	O
carbon	O
content	O
of	O
<	O
5%	O
,	O
electrolyte-to-sulfur	O
ratio	O
of	O
<	O
5	O
μL	O
mg−1	O
,	O
electrolyte-to-capacity	O
ratio	O
of	O
<	O
5	O
μL	O
(	O
mA	O
h	O
)	O
−1	O
,	O
and	O
negative-to-positive	O
capacity	O
ratio	O
of	O
<	O
5	O
in	O
pouch-type	O
cells	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
prototype	O
cell	O
demonstrated	O
1,000	O
charge	B-Algorithm
cycles	I-Algorithm
with	O
a	O
capacity	O
of	O
700	O
mAh/g	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2022	O
,	O
an	O
interlayer	O
was	O
introduced	O
that	O
claimed	O
to	O
reduce	O
polysulfide	O
movement	O
(	O
protecting	O
the	O
anode	O
)	O
and	O
facilitate	O
lithium	B-Language
ion	O
transfer	O
to	O
reduce	O
charge/discharge	O
times	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Also	O
in	O
2022	O
,	O
Researchers	O
at	O
Drexel	O
University	O
produced	O
a	O
prototype	O
lithium-sulfur	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
that	O
did	O
not	O
degrade	O
over	O
4000	O
charge	B-Algorithm
cycles	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Chemical	O
processes	O
in	O
the	O
Li	O
–	O
S	O
cell	O
include	O
lithium	B-Language
dissolution	O
from	O
the	O
anode	O
surface	O
(	O
and	O
incorporation	O
into	O
alkali	O
metal	O
polysulfide	O
salts	O
)	O
during	O
discharge	O
,	O
and	O
reverse	O
lithium	B-Language
plating	O
to	O
the	O
anode	O
while	O
charging	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
At	O
the	O
anodic	O
surface	O
,	O
dissolution	O
of	O
the	O
metallic	O
lithium	B-Language
occurs	O
,	O
with	O
the	O
production	O
of	O
electrons	O
and	O
lithium	B-Language
ions	O
during	O
the	O
discharge	O
and	O
electrodeposition	O
during	O
the	O
charge	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
analogy	O
with	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
,	O
the	O
dissolution	O
/	O
electrodeposition	O
reaction	O
causes	O
over	O
time	O
problems	O
of	O
unstable	O
growth	O
of	O
the	O
solid-electrolyte	O
interface	O
(	O
SEI	O
)	O
,	O
generating	O
active	O
sites	O
for	O
the	O
nucleation	B-Algorithm
and	O
dendritic	O
growth	O
of	O
lithium	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Dendritic	O
growth	O
is	O
responsible	O
for	O
the	O
internal	O
short	O
circuit	O
in	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
and	O
leads	O
to	O
the	O
death	O
of	O
the	O
battery	O
itself	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
Li-S	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
,	O
energy	O
is	O
stored	O
in	O
the	O
sulfur	O
cathode	O
(	O
S8	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
During	O
discharge	O
,	O
the	O
lithium	B-Language
ions	O
in	O
the	O
electrolyte	O
migrate	O
to	O
the	O
cathode	O
where	O
the	O
sulfur	O
is	O
reduced	B-Operating_System
to	O
lithium	B-Language
sulphide	O
(	O
Li2S	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
sulfur	O
is	O
reoxidized	O
to	O
S8	O
during	O
the	O
recharge	B-Architecture
phase	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Actually	O
the	O
sulfur	O
reduction	O
reaction	O
to	O
lithium	B-Language
sulphide	O
is	O
much	O
more	O
complex	O
and	O
involves	O
the	O
formation	O
of	O
lithium	B-Language
polysulphides	O
(	O
Li2Sx	O
,	O
2	O
≤	O
x	O
≤	O
8	O
)	O
at	O
decreasing	O
chain	O
length	O
according	O
to	O
the	O
order	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
contrasts	O
with	O
conventional	O
lithium-ion	O
cells	O
,	O
where	O
the	O
lithium	B-Language
ions	O
are	O
intercalated	O
in	O
the	O
anode	O
and	O
cathodes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Each	O
sulfur	O
atom	O
can	O
host	O
two	O
lithium	B-Language
ions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Typically	O
,	O
lithium-ion	O
batteries	O
accommodate	O
only	O
0.5	O
–	O
0.7	O
lithium	B-Language
ions	O
per	O
host	O
atom	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Consequently	O
,	O
LiS	O
allows	O
for	O
a	O
much	O
higher	O
lithium	B-Language
storage	O
density	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Polysulfides	O
are	O
reduced	B-Operating_System
on	O
the	O
cathode	O
surface	O
in	O
sequence	O
while	O
the	O
cell	O
is	O
discharging	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
Across	O
a	O
porous	O
diffusion	O
separator	O
,	O
sulfur	O
polymers	B-Language
form	O
at	O
the	O
cathode	O
as	O
the	O
cell	O
charges	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
reactions	O
are	O
analogous	O
to	O
those	O
in	O
the	O
sodium	B-Architecture
–	I-Architecture
sulfur	I-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Therefore	O
,	O
most	O
researchers	O
use	O
a	O
carbon/sulfur	O
cathode	O
and	O
a	O
lithium	B-Language
anode	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
problem	O
with	O
the	O
lithium	B-Language
–	O
sulfur	O
design	O
is	O
that	O
when	O
the	O
sulfur	O
in	O
the	O
cathode	O
absorbs	O
lithium	B-Language
,	O
volume	O
expansion	O
of	O
the	O
LixS	O
compositions	O
occurs	O
,	O
and	O
predicted	O
volume	O
expansion	O
of	O
Li2S	O
is	O
nearly	O
80%	O
of	O
the	O
volume	O
of	O
the	O
original	O
sulfur	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
process	O
reduces	O
the	O
contact	O
between	O
the	O
carbon	O
and	O
the	O
sulfur	O
,	O
and	O
prevents	O
the	O
flow	O
of	O
lithium	B-Language
ions	O
to	O
the	O
carbon	O
surface	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Mechanical	O
properties	O
of	O
the	O
lithiated	O
sulfur	O
compounds	O
are	O
strongly	O
contingent	O
on	O
the	O
lithium	B-Language
content	O
,	O
and	O
with	O
increasing	O
lithium	B-Language
content	O
,	O
the	O
strength	O
of	O
lithiated	O
sulfur	O
compounds	O
improves	O
,	O
although	O
this	O
increment	O
is	O
not	O
linear	O
with	O
lithiation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Use	O
of	O
highly	O
reactive	O
lithium	B-Language
as	O
a	O
negative	O
electrode	O
causes	O
dissociation	O
of	O
most	O
of	O
the	O
commonly	O
used	O
other	O
type	O
electrolytes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
lithium	B-Language
polysulfide	O
Li2Sx	O
(	O
6≤x≤8	O
)	O
is	O
highly	O
soluble	O
in	O
the	O
common	O
electrolytes	O
used	O
for	O
LiS	O
batteries	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
They	O
are	O
formed	O
and	O
leaked	O
from	O
the	O
cathode	O
and	O
they	O
diffuse	O
to	O
the	O
anode	O
,	O
where	O
they	O
are	O
reduced	B-Operating_System
to	O
short-chain	O
polysulfides	O
and	O
diffuse	O
back	O
to	O
the	O
cathode	O
where	O
long-chain	O
polysulfides	O
are	O
formed	O
again	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
process	O
results	O
in	O
the	O
continuous	O
leakage	O
of	O
active	O
material	O
from	O
the	O
cathode	O
,	O
lithium	B-Language
corrosion	O
,	O
low	O
coulombic	O
efficiency	O
and	O
low	O
battery	O
life	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
decayed	O
only	O
very	O
slowly	O
,	O
on	O
average	O
0.04	O
%	O
each	O
cycle	O
,	O
and	O
retained	O
658	O
Ah/kg	O
after	O
4000	O
cycles	B-Algorithm
(	O
82%	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
with1%	O
w/w	O
di	O
LiNO3	O
as	O
additive	O
for	O
lithium	B-Language
surface	O
passivation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Because	O
of	O
the	O
high	O
potential	O
energy	O
density	O
and	O
the	O
nonlinear	O
discharge	O
and	O
charging	O
response	O
of	O
the	O
cell	O
,	O
a	O
microcontroller	B-Architecture
and	O
other	O
safety	O
circuitry	O
is	O
sometimes	O
used	O
along	O
with	O
voltage	O
regulators	O
to	O
manage	O
cell	O
operation	O
and	O
prevent	O
rapid	O
discharge	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Nature	O
Materials	O
1,110	O
mA⋅	O
h/g	O
after	O
20	O
cycles	B-Algorithm
at	O
a	O
current	O
of	O
168mA⋅g	O
Minimal	O
degradation	O
during	O
charge	O
cycling	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
a	O
test	O
using	O
a	O
glyme	O
solvent	O
,	O
a	O
traditional	O
sulfur	O
cathode	O
lost	O
96%	O
of	O
its	O
sulfur	O
over	O
30	O
cycles	B-Algorithm
,	O
while	O
the	O
experimental	O
cathode	O
lost	O
only	O
25%	O
.Lithium	O
metal	O
Sulfur-coated	O
,	O
disordered	O
carbon	O
hollow	O
carbon	O
nanofibers	O
2011	O
Stanford	O
University	O
730mA⋅	O
h/g	O
after	O
150	O
cycles	B-Algorithm
(	O
at	O
0.5C	O
)	O
An	O
electrolyte	O
additive	O
boosted	O
the	O
faraday	O
efficiency	O
from	O
85%	O
to	O
over	O
99%	O
.Silicon	O
nanowire/carbon	O
Sulfur-coated	O
,	O
disordered	O
carbon	O
nanotubes	O
made	O
from	O
carbohydrates	O
2013	O
CGS	O
1,300	O
mA⋅	O
h/g	O
after	O
400	O
cycles	B-Algorithm
(	O
at	O
1C	O
)	O
Microwave	O
processing	O
of	O
materials	O
and	O
laser-printing	O
of	O
electrodes.Silicon	O
carbon	O
Sulfur	O
2013Fraunhofer	O
Institute	O
for	O
Material	O
and	O
Beam	O
Technology	O
IWS	O
?	O
</s>
<s>
823mA⋅	O
h/g	O
at	O
100	O
cycles	B-Algorithm
Uses	O
"	O
inverse	O
vulcanization	O
"	O
on	O
mostly	O
sulfur	O
with	O
a	O
small	O
amount	O
of	O
1	O
,	O
3-diisopropenylbenzene	O
(	O
DIB	O
)	O
additive	O
Porous	O
-encapsulated	O
sulfur	O
nanoparticles	O
2013Stanford	O
University	O
721mA⋅	O
h/g	O
at	O
1,000	O
cycles	B-Algorithm
(	O
0.5C	O
)	O
shell	O
protects	O
the	O
sulfur-lithium	O
intermediate	O
from	O
electrolyte	O
solvent	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
800mA·	O
h/g	O
at	O
300	O
cycles	B-Algorithm
at	O
60°C	O
(	O
1C	O
)	O
Solid	O
lithium	B-Language
polysulfidophosphate	O
electrolyte	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
400mA·	O
h/g	O
at	O
1,500	O
cycles	B-Algorithm
(	O
0.5C	O
charge	O
/	O
1C	O
discharge	O
)	O
Voltage	O
between	O
about	O
1.7	O
and	O
2.5	O
volts	O
,	O
depending	O
on	O
charge	O
state	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lithium	B-Language
bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl )	O
imide	O
)	O
dissolved	O
in	O
a	O
mixture	O
of	O
nmethyl-(n-butyl )	O
pyrrolidinium	O
bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl )	O
-imide	O
(	O
PYR14TFSI	O
)	O
,	O
1	O
,	O
3-dioxolane	O
(	O
DOL	O
)	O
,	O
dimethoxyethane	O
(	O
DME	O
)	O
with	O
1	O
M	O
lithium	B-Language
bis-(trifluoromethylsulfonyl )	O
imide	O
(	O
LiTFSI	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
lithium	B-Language
nitrate	O
(	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
25A·	O
h/cellPassivation	O
layer	O
prevents	O
sulfur	O
loss	O
Lithiated	O
hard-carbon	O
Sulfur-copolymer	O
(poly(S-co-DVB )	O
)	O
2019	O
Chungnam	O
National	O
University	O
400	O
mAh/g	O
for	O
500	O
cycles	B-Algorithm
at	O
3C	O
The	O
SEI	O
of	O
hard-carbon	O
prevents	O
polysulphides	O
deposition	O
at	O
anode	O
and	O
enables	O
high-rate	O
performance.Lithium	O
sulfur	O
batteriesCarbon	O
nanotube/Sulfur2014Tsinghua	O
University15.1mA	O
·h⋅cm−2	O
at	O
a	O
sulfur	O
loading	O
of	O
17.3mgS	O
⋅cm−2A	O
free-standing	O
CNT	O
–	O
S	O
paper	O
electrode	O
with	O
a	O
high	O
areal	O
sulfur-loading	O
was	O
fabricated	O
,	O
in	O
which	O
short	O
MWCNTs	O
served	O
as	O
the	O
short-range	O
electrical	O
conductive	O
network	O
and	O
super-long	O
CNTs	O
acted	O
as	O
both	O
the	O
long-range	O
conductive	O
network	O
and	O
intercrossed	O
binders.Glass-coated	O
sulfur	O
with	O
mildly	O
reduced	B-Operating_System
graphene	O
oxide	O
for	O
structural	O
support2015University	O
of	O
California	O
,	O
Riverside700mA⋅h⋅g−1	O
(	O
50	O
cycles	B-Algorithm
)	O
Glass	O
coating	O
prevents	O
lithium	B-Language
polysulfides	O
from	O
permanently	O
migrating	O
to	O
an	O
electrodeLithiumSulfur2016LEITAT500W⋅	O
h/kgALISE	O
H2020	O
project	O
developing	O
a	O
LiS	O
battery	O
for	O
cars	O
with	O
new	O
components	O
and	O
optimized	O
regarding	O
anode	O
,	O
cathode	O
,	O
electrolyte	O
and	O
separatorLithium	O
metalSulfurized	O
graphene2021CATRIN	O
,	O
Palacký	O
University	O
644mA⋅h⋅g−1	O
(	O
250	O
cycles	B-Algorithm
)	O
An	O
efficient	O
and	O
straightforward	O
approach	O
to	O
prepare	O
a	O
covalently	O
sulfurized	O
graphene	O
cathode	O
for	O
LiS	O
batteries	O
with	O
high	O
sulfur	O
content	O
and	O
high	O
cycling	O
stability.Sulfur-loaded	O
carbon	O
nanotubes2022Korea	O
Electrotechnology	O
Research	O
Institute850mA⋅h⋅g−1	O
(	O
100	O
cycles	B-Algorithm
)	O
Uses	O
a	O
phosphorus-doped	O
activated	O
carbon	O
separator	O
layer	O
to	O
minimize	O
the	O
polysulfide	O
shuttle	O
effect	O
,	O
while	O
creating	O
a	O
foldable	O
battery	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Companies	O
such	O
as	O
Sion	O
Power	O
have	O
partnered	O
with	O
Airbus	O
Defence	O
and	O
Space	O
to	O
test	O
their	O
lithium	B-Algorithm
sulfur	I-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
technology	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Airbus	O
Defense	O
and	O
Space	O
successfully	O
launched	O
their	O
prototype	O
High	O
Altitude	O
Pseudo-Satellite	O
(	O
HAPS	O
)	O
aircraft	O
powered	O
by	O
solar	O
energy	O
during	O
the	O
day	O
and	O
by	O
lithium	B-Algorithm
sulfur	I-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
at	O
night	O
in	O
real	O
life	O
conditions	O
during	O
an	O
11-day	O
flight	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Sion	O
originally	O
claimed	O
to	O
be	O
in	O
the	O
process	O
of	O
volume	O
manufacturing	O
with	O
availability	O
by	O
end	O
of	O
2017	O
;	O
however	O
more	O
recently	O
it	O
can	O
be	O
seen	O
that	O
they	O
have	O
dropped	O
work	O
on	O
their	O
lithium	B-Algorithm
sulfur	I-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
in	O
favor	O
of	O
a	O
lithium-metal	O
battery	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
British	O
firm	O
OXIS	O
Energy	O
developed	O
prototype	O
lithium	B-Algorithm
sulfur	I-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
With	O
Lithium	B-Language
Balance	O
of	O
Denmark	O
they	O
built	O
a	O
prototype	O
scooter	O
battery	O
system	O
primarily	O
for	O
the	O
Chinese	O
market	O
,	O
which	O
had	O
a	O
capacity	O
of	O
1.2kWh	O
using	O
10Ah	O
Long	O
Life	O
cells	O
,	O
and	O
weighed	O
60%	O
less	O
than	O
lead	O
acid	O
batteries	O
with	O
a	O
significant	O
increase	O
in	O
range	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
They	O
claimed	O
their	O
Lithium-Sulfur	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
would	O
cost	O
about	O
$	O
200/kWh	O
in	O
mass	O
production	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Sony	O
,	O
which	O
also	O
commercialized	O
the	O
first	O
lithium-ion	O
battery	O
,	O
planned	O
to	O
introduce	O
lithium	B-Algorithm
–	I-Algorithm
sulfur	I-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
to	O
the	O
market	O
in	O
2020	O
,	O
but	O
has	O
provided	O
no	O
updates	O
since	O
the	O
initial	O
announcement	O
in	O
2015	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Monash	O
University	O
's	O
Department	O
of	O
Mechanical	O
and	O
Aerospace	O
Engineering	O
in	O
Melbourne	O
,	O
Australia	O
developed	O
an	O
ultra-high	O
capacity	O
Li-S	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
that	O
has	O
been	O
manufactured	O
by	O
partners	O
at	O
the	O
Fraunhofer	O
Institute	O
for	O
Material	O
and	O
Beam	O
Technology	O
in	O
Germany	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2022	O
,	O
the	O
German	O
company	O
Theion	O
claimed	O
to	O
introduce	O
lithium	B-Algorithm
–	I-Algorithm
sulfur	I-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
for	O
mobile	O
devices	O
in	O
2023	O
and	O
for	O
vehicles	O
by	O
2024	O
.	O
</s>
