<s>
Lithium	B-Device
metal	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
are	O
primary	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
that	O
have	O
metallic	O
lithium	B-Language
as	O
an	O
anode	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
types	B-Algorithm
of	I-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
are	O
also	O
referred	O
to	O
as	O
lithium-metal	B-Device
batteries	I-Device
after	O
lithium-ion	O
batteries	O
had	O
been	O
invented	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Most	O
lithium	B-Device
metal	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
are	O
non-rechargeable	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
rechargeable	B-Algorithm
lithium	I-Algorithm
metal	I-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
are	O
also	O
under	O
development	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
2007	O
,	O
Dangerous	O
Goods	O
Regulations	O
differentiate	O
between	O
lithium	B-Device
metal	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
(	O
UN	O
3090	O
)	O
and	O
lithium-ion	O
batteries	O
(	O
UN	O
3480	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Depending	O
on	O
the	O
design	O
and	O
chemical	O
compounds	O
used	O
,	O
lithium	B-Language
cells	O
can	O
produce	O
voltages	O
from	O
(	O
comparable	O
to	O
a	O
zinc	B-Algorithm
–	I-Algorithm
carbon	I-Algorithm
or	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
)	O
to	O
about	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Disposable	O
primary	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
must	O
be	O
distinguished	O
from	O
secondary	O
lithium-ion	O
or	O
a	O
lithium-polymer	O
,	O
which	O
are	O
rechargeable	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
and	O
contain	O
no	O
metallic	O
lithium	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lithium	B-Language
is	O
especially	O
useful	O
,	O
because	O
its	O
ions	O
can	O
be	O
arranged	O
to	O
move	O
between	O
the	O
anode	O
and	O
the	O
cathode	O
,	O
using	O
an	O
intercalated	O
lithium	B-Language
compound	O
as	O
the	O
cathode	O
material	O
but	O
without	O
using	O
lithium	B-Language
metal	O
as	O
the	O
anode	O
material	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Pure	O
lithium	B-Language
will	O
instantly	O
react	O
with	O
water	O
,	O
or	O
even	O
moisture	O
in	O
the	O
air	O
;	O
the	O
lithium	B-Language
in	O
lithium-ion	O
batteries	O
is	O
a	O
less	O
reactive	O
compound	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
are	O
widely	O
used	O
in	O
portable	O
consumer	O
electronic	O
devices	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
term	O
"	O
lithium	B-Language
battery	O
"	O
refers	O
to	O
a	O
family	O
of	O
different	O
lithium-metal	O
chemistries	O
,	O
comprising	O
many	O
types	O
of	O
cathodes	O
and	O
electrolytes	O
but	O
all	O
with	O
metallic	O
lithium	B-Language
as	O
the	O
anode	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
battery	O
requires	O
from	O
0.15	O
to	O
0.3kg	O
of	O
lithium	B-Language
per	O
kWh	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
most	O
common	O
type	O
of	O
lithium	B-Language
cell	O
used	O
in	O
consumer	O
applications	O
uses	O
metallic	O
lithium	B-Language
as	O
the	O
anode	O
and	O
manganese	O
dioxide	O
as	O
the	O
cathode	O
,	O
with	O
a	O
salt	O
of	O
lithium	B-Language
dissolved	O
in	O
an	O
organic	O
solvent	O
as	O
the	O
electrolyte	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Chemistry	O
Cathode	O
Electrolyte	O
Nominalvoltage	O
Open-circuitvoltage	O
Wh/kg	O
Wh/L	O
Li	O
–	O
MnO2( IEC	O
code	O
:	O
C	O
)	O
,	O
"	O
CR	O
"	O
Heat-treated	O
manganese	O
dioxide	O
Lithium	B-Language
perchlorate	O
in	O
an	O
organic	O
solvent	O
(	O
propylene	O
carbonate	O
and	O
dimethoxyethane	O
in	O
many	O
common	O
cells	O
)	O
3	O
V	O
3.3	O
V	O
280	O
580	O
"	O
Li	O
–	O
Mn	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
most	O
common	O
consumer-grade	O
lithium	B-Language
battery	O
,	O
about	O
80%	O
of	O
the	O
lithium	B-Language
battery	O
market	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Li	O
–	O
( CF	O
)	O
x( IEC	O
code	O
:	O
B	O
)	O
,	O
"	O
BR	O
"	O
Carbon	O
monofluoride	O
Lithium	B-Language
tetrafluoroborate	O
in	O
propylene	O
carbonate	O
,	O
dimethoxyethane	O
,	O
or	O
gamma-butyrolactone	O
3	O
V	O
3.1	O
V	O
360	O
–	O
500	O
1,000	O
Cathode	O
material	O
formed	O
by	O
high-temperature	O
intercalation	O
of	O
fluorine	O
gas	O
into	O
graphite	B-Application
powder	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Used	O
in	O
aerospace	O
applications	O
,	O
qualified	O
for	O
space	O
since	O
1976	O
,	O
military	O
applications	O
both	O
terrestrial	O
and	O
marine	O
,	O
in	O
missiles	O
,	O
and	O
in	O
artificial	B-Device
cardiac	I-Device
pacemakers	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Li	O
–	O
FeS2( IEC	O
code	O
:	O
F	O
)	O
,	O
"	O
FR	O
"	O
Iron	O
disulfide	O
Propylene	O
carbonate	O
,	O
dioxolane	O
,	O
dimethoxyethane	O
1.4	O
–	O
1.6	O
V	O
1.8	O
V	O
297	O
"	O
Lithium-iron	O
"	O
,	O
"	O
Li/Fe	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Called	O
"	O
voltage-compatible	O
"	O
lithium	B-Language
,	O
it	O
can	O
work	O
as	O
a	O
replacement	O
for	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
with	O
its	O
1.5	O
V	O
nominal	O
voltage	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
such	O
,	O
Energizer	O
lithium	B-Language
cells	O
of	O
AA	B-Algorithm
and	O
AAA	B-Algorithm
size	O
employ	O
this	O
chemistry	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
2.5	O
times	O
higher	O
lifetime	O
for	O
high	O
current	O
discharge	O
regime	O
than	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
,	O
better	O
storage	O
life	O
due	O
to	O
lower	O
self-discharge	O
( 10	O
–	O
20	O
years	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Cathode	O
is	O
often	O
designed	O
as	O
a	O
paste	O
of	O
iron	O
sulfide	O
powder	O
mixed	O
with	O
powdered	O
graphite	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Li	O
–	O
SOCl2( IEC	O
code	O
:	O
E	O
)	O
Thionyl	O
chloride	O
Lithium	B-Language
tetrachloroaluminate	O
in	O
thionyl	O
chloride	O
3.5	O
V	O
3.65	O
V	O
500	O
–	O
700	O
1,200	O
Liquid	O
cathode	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
long	O
storage	O
,	O
forms	O
passivation	B-Application
layer	I-Application
on	O
the	O
anode	O
,	O
which	O
may	O
lead	O
to	O
temporary	O
voltage	O
delay	O
when	O
put	O
into	O
service	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Li	O
–	O
SOCl2	O
,	O
BrCl	O
,	O
Li	O
–	O
BCX( IEC	O
code	O
:	O
E	O
)	O
Thionyl	O
chloride	O
with	O
bromine	O
chloride	O
Lithium	B-Language
tetrachloroaluminate	O
in	O
thionyl	O
chloride	O
3.7	O
–	O
3.8	O
V	O
3.9	O
V	O
350	O
770	O
Liquid	O
cathode	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Li	O
–	O
SO2Cl2( IEC	O
code	O
:	O
Y	O
)	O
Sulfuryl	O
chloride	O
Lithium	B-Language
tetrachloroaluminate	O
in	O
sulfuryl	O
chloride	O
3.7	O
V	O
3.95	O
V	O
330	O
720	O
Liquid	O
cathode	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Commercial	O
deployment	O
is	O
hindered	O
by	O
the	O
tendency	O
of	O
the	O
electrolyte	O
to	O
corrode	O
the	O
lithium	B-Language
anodes	O
,	O
reducing	O
the	O
shelf	O
life	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Li	O
–	O
SO2( IEC	O
code	O
:	O
W	O
)	O
Sulfur	O
dioxide	O
on	O
teflon-bonded	O
carbon	O
Lithium	B-Language
bromide	O
in	O
sulfur	O
dioxide	O
with	O
small	O
amount	O
of	O
acetonitrile	O
2.85	O
V	O
3.0	O
V	O
250	O
400	O
Liquid	O
cathode	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Acetonitrile	O
forms	O
lithium	B-Language
cyanide	O
,	O
and	O
can	O
form	O
hydrogen	O
cyanide	O
in	O
high	O
temperatures	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
solid	O
monomolecular	O
layer	O
of	O
crystalline	O
Lithium	B-Language
iodide	O
that	O
conducts	O
lithium	B-Language
ions	O
from	O
the	O
anode	O
to	O
the	O
cathode	O
but	O
does	O
not	O
conduct	O
Iodine	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
pacemakers	B-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Terminal	O
voltage	O
decreases	O
with	O
the	O
degree	O
of	O
discharge	O
due	O
to	O
precipitation	O
of	O
lithium	B-Language
iodide	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Li	O
–	O
Ag2CrO4	O
Silver	O
chromate	O
Lithium	B-Language
perchlorate	O
solution	O
3.1/2.6	O
V	O
3.45	O
V	O
Very	O
high	O
reliability	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Developed	O
specifically	O
for	O
medical	O
applications	O
,	O
for	O
example	O
,	O
implanted	B-Device
pacemakers	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Li	O
–	O
Ag2V4O11	O
,	O
Li	O
–	O
SVO	O
,	O
Li	O
–	O
CSVO	O
Silver	O
oxide+vanadium	O
pentoxide	O
(	O
SVO	O
)	O
lithium	B-Language
hexafluorophosphate	O
or	O
lithium	B-Language
hexafluoroarsenate	O
in	O
propylene	O
carbonate	O
with	O
dimethoxyethane	O
Used	O
in	O
medical	O
applications	O
,	O
like	O
implantable	O
defibrillators	O
,	O
neurostimulators	O
,	O
and	O
drug	O
infusion	O
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Li	O
–	O
CuO( IEC	O
code	O
:	O
G	O
)	O
,	O
"	O
GR	O
"	O
Copper(II )	O
oxide	O
Lithium	B-Language
perchlorate	O
dissolved	O
in	O
dioxolane	O
1.5	O
V	O
2.4	O
V	O
Can	O
operate	O
up	O
to	O
150	O
°C	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Developed	O
as	O
a	O
replacement	O
of	O
zinc	B-Algorithm
–	I-Algorithm
carbon	I-Algorithm
and	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Produced	O
until	O
the	O
mid-1990s	O
,	O
replaced	O
by	O
lithium	B-Language
–	O
iron	O
sulfide	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Li	O
–	O
Cu4O(PO4 )	O
2	O
Copper	O
oxyphosphate	O
See	O
Li	O
–	O
CuO	O
Li	O
–	O
CuS	O
Copper	O
sulfide	O
Lithium	B-Language
salt	O
or	O
a	O
salt	O
such	O
as	O
a	O
tetraalkylammonium	O
chloride	O
dissolved	O
in	O
LiClO4	O
in	O
an	O
organic	O
solvent	O
that	O
is	O
a	O
mixture	O
of	O
1	O
,	O
2-dimethoxy	O
ethane	O
,	O
1	O
,	O
3-dioxolane	O
and	O
2	O
,	O
5-dimethyloxazole	O
as	O
a	O
stabilizerEngineering	O
Chemistry	O
by	O
RV	O
Gadag	O
and	O
Narayan	O
Shetty	O
1.5	O
V	O
Li	O
–	O
PbCuS	O
Lead	O
sulfide	O
and	O
copper	O
sulfide	O
1.5	O
V	O
2.2	O
V	O
Li	O
–	O
FeS	O
Iron	O
sulfide	O
Propylene	O
carbonate	O
,	O
dioxolane	O
,	O
dimethoxyethane	O
1.5	O
–	O
1.2	O
V	O
"	O
Lithium-iron	O
"	O
,	O
"	O
Li/Fe	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
used	O
as	O
a	O
replacement	O
for	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
See	O
lithium-iron	O
disulfide	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Li	O
–	O
Bi2Pb2O5	O
Lead	O
bismuthate	O
1.5	O
V	O
1.8	O
V	O
Replacement	O
of	O
silver-oxide	B-Device
batteries	I-Device
,	O
with	O
higher	O
energy	O
density	O
,	O
lower	O
tendency	O
to	O
leak	O
,	O
and	O
better	O
performance	O
at	O
higher	O
temperatures	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Rechargeable	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Used	O
in	O
reserve	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Rechargeable	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Li/Al	O
–	O
MnO2	O
,	O
"	O
ML	O
"	O
Manganese	O
dioxide	O
3	O
V	O
Rechargeable	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Anode	O
is	O
a	O
Lithium-Aluminum	O
alloy	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Li/Al	O
–	O
V2O5	O
,	O
"	O
VL	O
"	O
Vanadium	O
pentoxide	O
3	O
V	O
Rechargeable	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Li	O
–	O
Se	O
Selenium	B-Library
non-aqueous	O
carbonate	O
electrolytes	O
1.9	O
V	O
Li	B-Architecture
–	I-Architecture
air	I-Architecture
Porous	O
carbon	O
Organic	O
,	O
aqueous	O
,	O
glass	O
–	O
ceramic	O
(	O
polymer	O
–	O
ceramic	O
composites	O
)	O
1,800	O
–	O
660	O
1,600	O
–	O
600	O
Rechargeable	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
November	O
2015	O
,	O
a	O
team	O
of	O
University	O
of	O
Cambridge	O
researchers	O
furthered	O
work	O
on	O
lithium-air	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
by	O
developing	O
a	O
charging	O
process	O
capable	O
of	O
prolonging	O
the	O
battery	O
life	O
and	O
battery	O
efficiency	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
lithium-air	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
are	O
described	O
as	O
the	O
"	O
ultimate	O
"	O
batteries	O
because	O
they	O
propose	O
a	O
high	O
theoretical	O
energy	O
density	O
of	O
up	O
to	O
ten	O
times	O
the	O
energy	O
offered	O
by	O
regular	O
lithium-ion	O
batteries	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Li	O
–	O
FePO4	O
Lithium	B-Language
iron	O
phosphate	O
ethylene	O
carbonate	O
–	O
dimethyl	O
carbonate	O
(	O
EC	O
–	O
DMC	O
)	O
1	O
–	O
1	O
lithium	B-Language
perchlorate	O
(	O
)	O
1M	O
3.0	O
~	O
3.2	O
V	O
3.2	O
V	O
90	O
–	O
160	O
325	O
Wh/L	O
(	O
1,200	O
kJ/L	O
)	O
The	O
specific	O
capacity	O
of	O
is	O
higher	O
than	O
that	O
of	O
the	O
related	O
lithium	B-Language
cobalt	O
oxide	O
(	O
)	O
chemistry	O
,	O
but	O
its	O
energy	O
density	O
is	O
less	O
due	O
to	O
its	O
lower	O
operating	O
voltage	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
University	O
of	O
California	O
San	O
Diego	O
have	O
developed	O
an	O
electrolyte	O
chemistry	O
that	O
allows	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
to	O
run	O
at	O
temperatures	O
as	O
low	O
as	O
-60	O
°C	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
may	O
improve	O
energy	O
density	O
and	O
safety	O
of	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
and	O
electrochemical	O
capacitors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
find	O
application	O
in	O
many	O
long-life	O
,	O
critical	O
devices	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
pacemakers	B-Device
and	O
other	O
implantable	O
electronic	O
medical	O
devices	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
devices	O
use	O
specialized	O
lithium-iodide	O
batteries	O
designed	O
to	O
last	O
15	O
or	O
more	O
years	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
But	O
for	O
other	O
,	O
less	O
critical	O
applications	O
such	O
as	O
in	O
toys	O
,	O
the	O
lithium	B-Language
battery	O
may	O
actually	O
outlast	O
the	O
device	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
such	O
cases	O
,	O
an	O
expensive	O
lithium	B-Language
battery	O
may	O
not	O
be	O
cost-effective	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
can	O
be	O
used	O
in	O
place	O
of	O
ordinary	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
cells	I-Algorithm
in	O
many	O
devices	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
clocks	O
and	O
cameras	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Although	O
they	O
are	O
more	O
costly	O
,	O
lithium	B-Language
cells	O
will	O
provide	O
much	O
longer	O
life	O
,	O
thereby	O
minimizing	O
battery	O
replacement	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
attention	O
must	O
be	O
given	O
to	O
the	O
higher	O
voltage	O
developed	O
by	O
the	O
lithium	B-Language
cells	O
before	O
using	O
them	O
as	O
a	O
drop-in	O
replacement	O
in	O
devices	O
that	O
normally	O
use	O
ordinary	O
zinc	B-Algorithm
cells	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
also	O
prove	O
valuable	O
in	O
oceanographic	O
applications	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
lithium	B-Language
battery	O
packs	O
are	O
considerably	O
more	O
expensive	O
than	O
standard	O
oceanographic	O
packs	O
,	O
they	O
hold	O
up	O
to	O
three	O
times	O
the	O
capacity	O
of	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
packs	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Small	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
are	O
very	O
commonly	O
used	O
in	O
small	O
,	O
portable	O
electronic	O
devices	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
PDAs	B-Application
,	O
watches	O
,	O
camcorders	O
,	O
digital	B-Device
cameras	I-Device
,	O
thermometers	O
,	O
calculators	O
,	O
personal	O
computer	O
BIOS	O
(	O
firmware	O
)	O
,	O
communication	O
equipment	O
and	O
remote	O
car	O
locks	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
common	O
CR2032	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
is	O
20mm	O
diameter	O
and	O
3.2mm	O
thick	O
,	O
where	O
the	O
first	O
two	O
digits	O
is	O
the	O
diameter	O
and	O
the	O
last	O
two	O
digits	O
are	O
thickness	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
CR2025	B-Algorithm
is	O
the	O
same	O
20mm	O
diameter	O
but	O
2.5mm	O
thick	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
heavy	O
electrical	O
demands	O
of	O
many	O
of	O
these	O
devices	O
make	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
a	O
particularly	O
attractive	O
option	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
particular	O
,	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
can	O
easily	O
support	O
the	O
brief	O
,	O
heavy	O
current	O
demands	O
of	O
devices	O
such	O
as	O
digital	B-Device
cameras	I-Device
,	O
and	O
they	O
maintain	O
a	O
higher	O
voltage	O
for	O
a	O
longer	O
period	O
than	O
alkaline	B-Algorithm
cells	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lithium	B-Language
primary	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
account	O
for	O
28%	O
of	O
all	O
primary	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
sales	O
in	O
Japan	O
but	O
only	O
1%	O
of	O
all	O
battery	O
sales	O
in	O
Switzerland	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
EU	O
only	O
0.5	O
%	O
of	O
all	O
battery	O
sales	O
including	O
secondary	O
types	O
are	O
lithium	B-Language
primaries	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
energy	O
density	O
of	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
has	O
more	O
than	O
doubled	O
since	O
they	O
were	O
introduced	O
in	O
1991	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
can	O
provide	O
extremely	O
high	O
currents	O
and	O
can	O
discharge	O
very	O
rapidly	O
when	O
short-circuited	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Although	O
this	O
is	O
useful	O
in	O
applications	O
where	O
high	O
currents	O
are	O
required	O
,	O
a	O
too-rapid	O
discharge	O
of	O
a	O
lithium	B-Language
battery	O
-	O
especially	O
if	O
cobalt	O
is	O
present	O
in	O
the	O
cells	O
 '	O
design	O
-	O
can	O
result	O
in	O
overheating	O
of	O
the	O
battery	O
(	O
that	O
lowers	O
the	O
electrical	O
resistance	O
of	O
any	O
cobalt	O
content	O
within	O
the	O
cell	O
)	O
,	O
rupture	O
,	O
and	O
even	O
an	O
explosion	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lithium-thionyl	O
chloride	O
batteries	O
are	O
particularly	O
susceptible	O
to	O
this	O
type	O
of	O
discharge	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
From	O
January	O
1	O
2013	O
,	O
much	O
stricter	O
regulations	O
were	O
introduced	O
by	O
IATA	O
regarding	O
the	O
carriage	O
of	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
by	O
air	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
the	O
UK	O
,	O
have	O
decided	O
that	O
they	O
will	O
not	O
accept	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
unless	O
they	O
are	O
included	O
with	O
the	O
equipment	O
they	O
power	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Because	O
of	O
the	O
above	O
risks	O
,	O
shipping	O
and	O
carriage	O
of	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
are	O
restricted	O
in	O
some	O
situations	O
,	O
particularly	O
the	O
transport	O
of	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
by	O
air	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
United	O
States	O
Transportation	O
Security	O
Administration	O
announced	O
restrictions	O
effective	O
January	O
1	O
,	O
2008	O
,	O
on	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
in	O
checked	O
and	O
carry-on	O
luggage	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
rules	O
forbid	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
not	O
installed	O
in	O
a	O
device	O
from	O
checked	O
luggage	O
and	O
restrict	O
them	O
in	O
carry-on	O
luggage	O
by	O
total	O
lithium	B-Language
content	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Australia	O
Post	O
prohibited	O
transport	O
of	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
in	O
air	B-Operating_System
mail	I-Operating_System
during	O
2010	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
UK	O
regulations	O
for	O
the	O
transport	O
of	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
were	O
amended	O
by	O
the	O
National	O
Chemical	O
Emergency	O
Centre	O
in	O
2009	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
late	O
2009	O
,	O
at	O
least	O
some	O
postal	O
administrations	O
restricted	O
airmail	O
shipping	O
(	O
including	O
Express	O
Mail	O
Service	O
)	O
of	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
,	O
lithium-ion	O
batteries	O
and	O
products	O
containing	O
these	O
(	O
such	O
as	O
laptops	O
and	O
cell	O
phones	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Unused	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
provide	O
a	O
convenient	O
source	O
of	O
lithium	B-Language
metal	O
for	O
use	O
as	O
a	O
reducing	O
agent	O
in	O
methamphetamine	O
labs	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Specifically	O
,	O
lithium	B-Language
metal	O
reduces	O
pseudoephedrine	O
and	O
ephedrine	O
to	O
methamphetamine	O
in	O
the	O
Birch	O
reduction	O
method	O
,	O
which	O
employs	O
solutions	O
of	O
alkali	O
metals	O
dissolved	O
in	O
anhydrous	O
ammonia	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
jurisdictions	O
have	O
passed	O
laws	O
to	O
restrict	O
lithium	B-Language
battery	O
sales	O
or	O
asked	O
businesses	O
to	O
make	O
voluntary	O
restrictions	O
in	O
an	O
attempt	O
to	O
help	O
curb	O
the	O
creation	O
of	O
illegal	O
meth	O
labs	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2004	O
Wal-Mart	O
stores	O
were	O
reported	O
to	O
limit	O
the	O
sale	O
of	O
disposable	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
to	O
three	O
packages	O
in	O
Missouri	O
and	O
four	O
packages	O
in	O
other	O
states	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Button	B-Algorithm
cell	I-Algorithm
batteries	O
are	O
attractive	O
to	O
small	O
children	O
and	O
are	O
often	O
ingested	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
past	O
20	O
years	O
,	O
although	O
there	O
has	O
not	O
been	O
an	O
increase	O
in	O
the	O
total	O
number	O
of	O
button	B-Algorithm
cell	I-Algorithm
batteries	O
ingested	O
in	O
a	O
year	O
,	O
researchers	O
have	O
noted	O
a	O
6.7-fold	O
increase	O
in	O
the	O
risk	O
that	O
an	O
ingestion	O
would	O
result	O
in	O
a	O
moderate	O
or	O
major	O
complication	O
and	O
12.5-fold	O
increase	O
in	O
fatalities	O
comparing	O
the	O
last	O
decade	O
to	O
the	O
previous	O
one	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
primary	O
mechanism	O
of	O
injury	O
with	O
button	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
ingestions	O
is	O
the	O
generation	O
of	O
hydroxide	O
ions	O
,	O
which	O
cause	O
severe	O
chemical	O
burns	O
,	O
at	O
the	O
anode	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
majority	O
of	O
ingestions	O
are	O
not	O
witnessed	O
;	O
presentations	O
are	O
non-specific	O
;	O
battery	O
voltage	O
has	O
increased	O
;	O
the	O
20	O
to	O
25mm	O
button	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
size	O
are	O
more	O
likely	O
to	O
become	O
lodged	O
at	O
the	O
cricopharyngeal	O
junction	O
;	O
and	O
severe	O
tissue	O
damage	O
can	O
occur	O
within	O
2	O
hours	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
3V	O
,	O
20mm	O
CR2032	B-Algorithm
lithium	B-Language
battery	O
has	O
been	O
implicated	O
in	O
many	O
of	O
the	O
complications	O
from	O
button	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
ingestions	O
by	O
children	O
of	O
less	O
than	O
4	O
years	O
of	O
age	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
the	O
only	O
cure	O
for	O
an	O
esophageal	O
impaction	O
is	O
endoscopic	B-Application
removal	O
,	O
a	O
2018	O
study	O
out	O
of	O
Children	O
's	O
Hospital	O
of	O
Philadelphia	O
by	O
Rachel	O
R	O
.	O
Anfang	O
and	O
colleagues	O
found	O
that	O
early	O
and	O
frequent	O
ingestion	O
of	O
honey	O
or	O
sucralfate	O
suspension	O
prior	O
to	O
the	O
battery	O
's	O
removal	O
can	O
reduce	O
the	O
injury	O
severity	O
to	O
a	O
significant	O
degree	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Button	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
can	O
also	O
cause	O
significant	O
necrotic	O
injury	O
when	O
stuck	O
in	O
the	O
nose	O
or	O
ears	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Prevention	O
efforts	O
in	O
the	O
US	O
by	O
the	O
National	O
Button	B-Algorithm
Battery	I-Algorithm
Task	O
force	O
in	O
cooperation	O
with	O
industry	O
leaders	O
have	O
led	O
to	O
changes	O
in	O
packaging	O
and	O
battery	O
compartment	O
design	O
in	O
electronic	O
devices	O
to	O
reduce	O
a	O
child	O
's	O
access	O
to	O
these	O
batteries	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
,	O
one	O
manufacturer	O
of	O
lithium	B-Language
iron	O
disulfide	O
primary	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
advises	O
that	O
consumer	O
quantities	O
of	O
used	O
cells	O
may	O
be	O
discarded	O
in	O
municipal	O
waste	O
,	O
as	O
the	O
battery	O
does	O
not	O
contain	O
any	O
substances	O
controlled	O
by	O
US	O
Federal	O
regulations	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Another	O
manufacturer	O
states	O
that	O
"	O
button	O
"	O
size	O
lithium	B-Language
batteries	O
contain	O
perchlorate	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
regulated	O
as	O
a	O
hazardous	O
waste	O
in	O
California	O
;	O
regulated	O
quantities	O
would	O
not	O
be	O
found	O
in	O
typical	O
consumer	O
use	O
of	O
these	O
cells	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
lithium	B-Language
in	O
used	O
but	O
non-working	O
(	O
i.e.	O
</s>
<s>
extended	O
storage	O
)	O
button	B-Algorithm
cells	I-Algorithm
is	O
still	O
likely	O
to	O
be	O
in	O
the	O
cathode	O
cup	O
,	O
it	O
is	O
possible	O
to	O
extract	O
commercially	O
useful	O
quantities	O
of	O
the	O
metal	O
from	O
such	O
cells	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
the	O
manganese	O
dioxide	O
and	O
specialist	O
plastics	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
also	O
alloy	O
the	O
lithium	B-Language
with	O
magnesium	O
(	O
Mg	O
)	O
to	O
cut	O
costs	O
and	O
these	O
are	O
particularly	O
prone	O
to	O
the	O
mentioned	O
failure	O
mode	O
.	O
</s>
