<s>
A	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
system	I-Application
is	O
a	O
domain-specific	O
expert	B-Application
system	I-Application
that	O
uses	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
to	O
emulate	O
the	O
decision-making	O
abilities	O
of	O
a	O
human	O
expert	O
in	O
the	O
field	O
of	O
law	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
systems	I-Application
employ	O
a	O
rule	O
base	O
or	O
knowledge	O
base	O
and	O
an	O
inference	O
engine	O
to	O
accumulate	O
,	O
reference	O
and	O
produce	O
expert	O
knowledge	O
on	O
specific	O
subjects	O
within	O
the	O
legal	O
domain	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
has	O
been	O
suggested	O
that	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
systems	I-Application
could	O
help	O
to	O
manage	O
the	O
rapid	O
expansion	O
of	O
legal	O
information	O
and	O
decisions	O
that	O
began	O
to	O
intensify	O
in	O
the	O
late	O
1960s	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
of	O
the	O
first	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
systems	I-Application
were	O
created	O
in	O
the	O
1970s	O
and	O
1980s	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lawyers	O
were	O
originally	O
identified	O
as	O
primary	O
target	O
users	O
of	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
systems	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Later	O
work	O
on	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
systems	I-Application
has	O
identified	O
potential	O
benefits	O
to	O
non-lawyers	O
as	O
a	O
means	O
to	O
increase	O
access	O
to	O
legal	O
knowledge	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
systems	I-Application
can	O
also	O
support	O
administrative	O
processes	O
,	O
facilitating	O
decision	O
making	O
processes	O
,	O
automating	B-Application
rule-based	O
analyses	O
and	O
exchanging	O
information	O
directly	O
with	O
citizen-users	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Rule-based	O
expert	B-Application
systems	I-Application
rely	O
on	O
a	O
model	O
of	O
deductive	O
reasoning	O
that	O
utilizes	O
"	O
if	O
A	O
,	O
then	O
B	O
"	O
rules	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
a	O
rule-based	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
system	I-Application
,	O
information	O
is	O
represented	O
in	O
the	O
form	O
of	O
deductive	O
rules	O
within	O
the	O
knowledge	O
base	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
neural	B-Architecture
net	I-Architecture
relies	O
on	O
a	O
computer	O
model	O
that	O
mimics	O
that	O
structure	O
of	O
a	O
human	O
brain	O
,	O
and	O
operates	O
in	O
a	O
very	O
similar	O
way	O
to	O
the	O
case-based	O
reasoning	O
model	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
expert	B-Application
system	I-Application
model	O
is	O
capable	O
of	O
recognizing	O
and	O
classifying	O
patterns	O
within	O
the	O
realm	O
of	O
legal	O
knowledge	O
and	O
dealing	O
with	O
imprecise	O
inputs	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
some	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
system	I-Application
architects	O
have	O
adopted	O
a	O
very	O
practical	O
approach	O
,	O
employing	O
scientific	O
modes	O
of	O
reasoning	O
within	O
a	O
given	O
set	O
of	O
rules	O
or	O
cases	O
,	O
others	O
have	O
opted	O
for	O
a	O
broader	O
philosophical	O
approach	O
inspired	O
by	O
jurisprudential	O
reasoning	O
modes	O
emanating	O
from	O
established	O
legal	O
theoreticians	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
systems	I-Application
aim	O
to	O
arrive	O
at	O
a	O
particular	O
conclusion	O
in	O
law	O
,	O
while	O
others	O
are	O
designed	O
to	O
predict	O
a	O
particular	O
outcome	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
forms	O
of	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
systems	I-Application
have	O
become	O
widely	O
used	O
and	O
accepted	O
by	O
both	O
the	O
legal	O
community	O
and	O
the	O
users	O
of	O
legal	O
services	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
inherent	O
complexity	O
of	O
law	O
as	O
a	O
discipline	O
raises	O
immediate	O
challenges	O
for	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
system	I-Application
knowledge	O
engineers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Factual	O
uncertainty	O
may	O
also	O
arise	O
when	O
there	O
are	O
disputed	O
versions	O
of	O
factual	O
representations	O
that	O
must	O
be	O
input	O
into	O
an	O
expert	B-Application
system	I-Application
to	O
begin	O
the	O
reasoning	O
process	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
limitations	O
of	O
most	O
computerized	O
problem	O
solving	O
techniques	O
inhibit	O
the	O
success	O
of	O
many	O
expert	B-Application
systems	I-Application
in	O
the	O
legal	O
domain	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Expert	B-Application
systems	I-Application
typically	O
rely	O
on	O
deductive	O
reasoning	O
models	O
that	O
have	O
difficulty	O
according	O
degrees	O
of	O
weight	O
to	O
certain	O
principles	O
of	O
law	O
or	O
importance	O
to	O
previously	O
decided	O
cases	O
that	O
may	O
or	O
may	O
not	O
influence	O
a	O
decision	O
in	O
an	O
immediate	O
case	O
or	O
context	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Expert	O
legal	O
knowledge	O
can	O
be	O
difficult	O
to	O
represent	O
or	O
formalize	O
within	O
the	O
structure	O
of	O
an	O
expert	B-Application
system	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Such	O
balancing	O
may	O
draw	O
on	O
extra-legal	O
considerations	O
that	O
would	O
be	O
difficult	O
to	O
represent	O
logically	O
in	O
an	O
expert	B-Application
system	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Creating	O
a	O
functioning	O
expert	B-Application
system	I-Application
requires	O
significant	O
investments	O
in	O
software	B-Architecture
architecture	I-Architecture
,	O
subject	O
matter	O
expertise	O
and	O
knowledge	O
engineering	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
consequence	O
of	O
this	O
approach	O
is	O
the	O
creation	O
of	O
narrowly	O
focused	O
and	O
geographically	O
restricted	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
systems	I-Application
that	O
are	O
difficult	O
to	O
justify	O
on	O
a	O
cost-benefit	O
basis	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Current	O
applications	B-Application
of	I-Application
AI	I-Application
in	O
the	O
legal	O
field	O
utilize	O
machines	O
to	O
review	O
documents	O
,	O
particularly	O
when	O
a	O
high	O
level	O
of	O
completeness	O
and	O
confidence	O
in	O
the	O
quality	O
of	O
document	O
analysis	O
is	O
depended	O
upon	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
in	O
instances	O
of	O
litigation	O
and	O
where	O
due	O
diligence	O
play	O
a	O
role	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Among	O
the	O
numerically	O
most	O
quantifiable	O
advantages	O
of	O
AI	B-Application
in	O
the	O
legal	O
field	O
are	O
the	O
time	O
and	O
money	O
saving	O
impact	O
by	O
freeing	O
lawyers	O
from	O
having	O
to	O
spend	O
inordinate	O
amounts	O
of	O
their	O
valuable	O
time	O
on	O
routine	O
tasks	O
,	O
aiding	O
in	O
setting	O
free	O
lawyers’	O
creative	O
energy	O
by	O
reducing	O
stress	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
cost	O
of	O
setting	O
up	O
and	O
maintaining	O
AI	B-Application
systems	O
in	O
law	O
is	O
more	O
than	O
offset	O
by	O
the	O
attained	O
savings	O
through	O
increased	O
efficacy	O
;	O
unbalanced	O
cost	O
can	O
be	O
assigned	O
to	O
clients	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
systems	I-Application
may	O
lead	O
non-expert	O
users	O
to	O
incorrect	O
or	O
inaccurate	O
results	O
and	O
decisions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ASHSD-II	O
is	O
a	O
hybrid	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
system	I-Application
that	O
blends	O
rule-based	O
and	O
case-based	O
reasoning	O
models	O
in	O
the	O
area	O
of	O
matrimonial	O
property	O
disputes	O
under	O
English	O
law	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
CHIRON	O
is	O
a	O
hybrid	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
system	I-Application
that	O
blends	O
rule-based	O
and	O
case-based	O
reasoning	O
models	O
to	O
support	O
tax	O
planning	O
activities	O
under	O
United	O
States	O
tax	O
law	O
and	O
codes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
JUDGE	O
is	O
a	O
rule-based	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
system	I-Application
that	O
deals	O
with	O
sentencing	O
in	O
the	O
criminal	O
legal	O
domain	O
for	O
offences	O
relating	O
to	O
murder	O
,	O
assault	O
and	O
manslaughter	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Legislate	O
is	O
a	O
knowledge	B-Application
graph	I-Application
powered	O
contract	O
management	O
platform	O
which	O
applies	O
legal	O
rules	O
to	O
generate	O
lawyer-approved	O
contracts	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Latent	O
Damage	O
Project	O
is	O
a	O
rule-based	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
system	I-Application
that	O
deals	O
with	O
limitation	O
periods	O
under	O
the	O
(	O
UK	O
)	O
Latent	O
Damage	O
Act	O
1986	O
in	O
relation	O
to	O
the	O
domains	O
of	O
tort	O
,	O
contract	O
and	O
product	O
liability	O
law	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Split-Up	B-Algorithm
is	O
a	O
rule-based	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
system	I-Application
that	O
assists	O
in	O
the	O
division	O
of	O
marital	O
assets	O
according	O
to	O
the	O
(	O
Australia	O
)	O
Family	O
Law	O
Act	O
(	O
1975	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
SHYSTER	B-Application
is	O
a	O
case-based	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
system	I-Application
that	O
can	O
also	O
function	O
as	O
a	O
hybrid	O
through	O
its	O
ability	O
to	O
link	O
with	O
rule-based	O
models	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
may	O
be	O
a	O
lack	O
of	O
consensus	O
over	O
what	O
distinguishes	O
a	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
system	I-Application
from	O
a	O
knowledge-based	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
(	O
also	O
called	O
an	O
intelligent	O
knowledge-based	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
systems	I-Application
are	O
held	O
to	O
function	O
at	O
the	O
level	O
of	O
a	O
human	O
legal	O
expert	O
,	O
knowledge-based	B-General_Concept
systems	I-General_Concept
may	O
depend	O
on	O
the	O
ongoing	O
assistance	O
of	O
a	O
human	O
expert	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
True	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
systems	I-Application
typically	O
focus	O
on	O
a	O
narrow	O
domain	O
of	O
expertise	O
as	O
opposed	O
to	O
a	O
wider	O
and	O
less	O
specific	O
domain	O
as	O
in	O
the	O
case	O
of	O
most	O
knowledge-based	B-General_Concept
systems	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
systems	I-Application
represent	O
potentially	O
disruptive	O
technologies	O
for	O
the	O
traditional	O
,	O
bespoke	O
delivery	O
of	O
legal	O
services	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Arguments	O
have	O
been	O
made	O
that	O
a	O
failure	O
to	O
take	O
into	O
consideration	O
various	O
theoretical	O
approaches	O
to	O
legal	O
decision	O
making	O
will	O
produce	O
expert	B-Application
systems	I-Application
that	O
fail	O
to	O
reflect	O
the	O
true	O
nature	O
of	O
decision	O
making	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Meanwhile	O
,	O
some	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
system	I-Application
architects	O
contend	O
that	O
because	O
many	O
lawyers	O
have	O
proficient	O
legal	O
reasoning	O
skills	O
without	O
a	O
sound	O
base	O
in	O
legal	O
theory	O
,	O
the	O
same	O
should	O
hold	O
true	O
for	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
systems	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Because	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
systems	I-Application
apply	O
precision	O
and	O
scientific	O
rigor	O
to	O
the	O
act	O
of	O
legal	O
decision-making	O
,	O
they	O
may	O
be	O
seen	O
as	O
a	O
challenge	O
to	O
the	O
more	O
disorganized	O
and	O
less	O
precise	O
dynamics	O
of	O
traditional	O
jurisprudential	O
modes	O
of	O
legal	O
reasoning	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
2013	O
,	O
there	O
have	O
been	O
significant	O
developments	O
in	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
systems	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Professor	O
Tanina	O
Rostain	O
of	O
Georgetown	O
Law	O
Center	O
teaches	O
a	O
course	O
in	O
designing	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
systems	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Open-source	O
platforms	O
like	O
Docassemble	O
and	O
companies	O
such	O
as	O
Neota	O
Logic	O
and	O
Checkbox	O
have	O
begun	O
to	O
offer	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
and	O
machine	O
learning-based	O
legal	B-Application
expert	I-Application
systems	I-Application
.	O
</s>
