<s>
The	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
battery	I-Device
is	O
a	O
type	O
of	O
rechargeable	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
first	O
invented	O
in	O
1859	O
by	O
French	O
physicist	O
Gaston	O
Planté	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
the	O
first	O
type	O
of	O
rechargeable	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
ever	O
created	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Compared	O
to	O
modern	O
rechargeable	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
,	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
have	O
relatively	O
low	O
energy	O
density	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lead-acid	B-Device
batteries	I-Device
suffer	O
from	O
relatively	O
short	O
cycle	O
lifespan	O
(	O
usually	O
less	O
than	O
500	O
deep	B-Algorithm
cycles	I-Algorithm
)	O
and	O
overall	O
lifespan	O
(	O
due	O
to	O
the	O
"	O
double	O
sulfation	O
"	O
in	O
the	O
discharged	O
state	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
they	O
are	O
inexpensive	O
compared	O
to	O
newer	O
technologies	O
,	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
are	O
widely	O
used	O
even	O
when	O
surge	O
current	O
is	O
not	O
important	O
and	O
other	O
designs	O
could	O
provide	O
higher	O
energy	O
densities	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1999	O
,	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
battery	I-Device
sales	O
accounted	O
for	O
40	O
–	O
50%	O
of	O
the	O
value	O
from	O
batteries	O
sold	O
worldwide	O
(	O
excluding	O
China	O
and	O
Russia	O
)	O
,	O
equivalent	O
to	O
a	O
manufacturing	O
market	O
value	O
of	O
about	O
US$15	O
billion	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Large-format	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
designs	O
are	O
widely	O
used	O
for	O
storage	O
in	O
backup	O
power	O
supplies	O
in	O
cell	O
phone	O
towers	O
,	O
high-availability	O
emergency	O
power	O
systems	O
like	O
hospitals	O
,	O
and	O
stand-alone	O
power	O
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Gel-cells	O
and	O
absorbed	O
glass-mat	O
batteries	O
are	O
common	O
in	O
these	O
roles	O
,	O
collectively	O
known	O
as	O
VRLA	O
(	O
valve-regulated	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
)	O
batteries	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1859	O
,	O
Gaston	O
Planté	O
's	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
battery	I-Device
was	O
the	O
first	O
battery	O
that	O
could	O
be	O
recharged	O
by	O
passing	O
a	O
reverse	O
current	O
through	O
it	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
early	O
manufacturer	O
(	O
from	O
1886	O
)	O
of	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
was	O
Henri	O
Tudor	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
1970s	O
,	O
the	O
valve-regulated	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
battery	I-Device
(	O
VRLA	O
,	O
or	O
"	O
sealed	O
"	O
)	O
was	O
developed	O
,	O
including	O
modern	O
absorbed	O
glass	O
mat	O
(	O
AGM	O
)	O
types	O
,	O
allowing	O
operation	O
in	O
any	O
position	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
was	O
discovered	O
early	O
in	O
2011	O
that	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
did	O
in	O
fact	O
use	O
some	O
aspects	O
of	O
relativity	O
to	O
function	O
,	O
and	O
to	O
a	O
lesser	O
degree	O
liquid	O
metal	O
and	O
molten-salt	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
such	O
as	O
the	O
Ca	O
–	O
Sb	O
and	O
Sn	O
–	O
Bi	O
also	O
use	O
this	O
effect	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
comes	O
to	O
167	O
watt-hours	O
per	O
kilogram	O
of	O
reactants	O
,	O
but	O
in	O
practice	O
,	O
a	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
cell	O
gives	O
only	O
30	O
–	O
40	O
watt-hours	O
per	O
kilogram	O
of	O
battery	O
,	O
due	O
to	O
the	O
mass	O
of	O
the	O
water	O
and	O
other	O
constituent	O
parts	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
IUoU	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
charging	I-Algorithm
is	O
a	O
three-stage	O
charging	O
procedure	O
for	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
battery	I-Device
's	O
nominal	O
voltage	O
is	O
2.2V	O
for	O
each	O
cell	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Float	B-Algorithm
voltage	I-Algorithm
varies	O
depending	O
on	O
battery	O
type	O
(	O
i.e.	O
</s>
<s>
IEEE	O
Standard	O
485-2020	O
(	O
first	O
published	O
in	O
1997	O
)	O
is	O
the	O
industry	O
's	O
recommended	O
practice	O
for	O
sizing	O
Lead-Acid	B-Device
batteries	I-Device
in	O
stationary	O
applications	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
cell	O
can	O
be	O
demonstrated	O
using	O
sheet	O
lead	O
plates	O
for	O
the	O
two	O
electrodes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Faure	O
's	O
process	O
significantly	O
reduced	O
the	O
time	O
and	O
cost	O
to	O
manufacture	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
,	O
and	O
gave	O
a	O
substantial	O
increase	O
in	O
capacity	O
compared	O
with	O
Planté	O
's	O
battery	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Related	O
research	O
led	O
to	O
the	O
development	O
of	O
lead	O
–	O
selenium	B-Library
grid	O
alloys	O
in	O
Europe	O
a	O
few	O
years	O
later	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Both	O
lead	O
–	O
calcium	O
and	O
lead	O
–	O
selenium	B-Library
grid	O
alloys	O
still	O
add	O
antimony	O
,	O
albeit	O
in	O
much	O
smaller	O
quantities	O
than	O
the	O
older	O
high-antimony	O
grids	O
:	O
lead	O
–	O
calcium	O
grids	O
have	O
4	O
–	O
6%	O
antimony	O
while	O
lead	O
–	O
selenium	B-Library
grids	O
have	O
1	O
–	O
2%	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
the	O
1950s	O
,	O
batteries	O
designed	O
for	O
infrequent	O
cycling	O
applications	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
standby	O
power	O
batteries	O
)	O
increasingly	O
have	O
lead	O
–	O
calcium	O
or	O
lead	O
–	O
selenium	B-Library
alloy	O
grids	O
since	O
these	O
have	O
less	O
hydrogen	O
evolution	O
and	O
thus	O
lower	O
maintenance	O
overhead	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lead	O
–	O
calcium	O
alloy	O
grids	O
are	O
cheaper	O
to	O
manufacture	O
(	O
the	O
cells	O
thus	O
have	O
lower	O
up-front	O
costs	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
have	O
a	O
lower	O
self-discharge	O
rate	O
,	O
and	O
lower	O
watering	O
requirements	O
,	O
but	O
have	O
slightly	O
poorer	O
conductivity	O
,	O
are	O
mechanically	O
weaker	O
(	O
and	O
thus	O
require	O
more	O
antimony	O
to	O
compensate	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
are	O
more	O
strongly	O
subject	O
to	O
corrosion	O
(	O
and	O
thus	O
a	O
shorter	O
lifespan	O
)	O
than	O
cells	O
with	O
lead	O
–	O
selenium	B-Library
alloy	O
grids	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
open-circuit	O
effect	O
is	O
a	O
dramatic	O
loss	O
of	O
battery	B-Algorithm
cycle	I-Algorithm
life	O
which	O
was	O
observed	O
when	O
calcium	O
was	O
substituted	O
for	O
antimony	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
separators	O
inhibit	O
the	O
plates	O
from	O
touching	O
each	O
other	O
,	O
which	O
would	O
otherwise	O
constitute	O
a	O
short	B-Application
circuit	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Deep-cycle	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
have	O
a	O
different	O
geometry	O
for	O
their	O
positive	O
electrodes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
makes	O
tubular/cylindrical	O
geometry	O
plates	O
especially	O
suitable	O
for	O
high-current	O
applications	O
with	O
weight	O
or	O
space	O
limitations	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
for	O
forklifts	B-Operating_System
or	O
for	O
starting	O
marine	O
diesel	O
engines	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
About	O
60%	O
of	O
the	O
weight	O
of	O
an	O
automotive-type	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
battery	I-Device
rated	O
around	O
60	O
A·h	O
is	O
lead	O
or	O
internal	O
parts	O
made	O
of	O
lead	O
;	O
the	O
balance	O
is	O
electrolyte	O
,	O
separators	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
case	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Separators	O
between	O
the	O
positive	O
and	O
negative	O
plates	O
prevent	O
short	B-Application
circuit	I-Application
through	O
physical	O
contact	O
,	O
mostly	O
through	O
dendrites	O
(	O
"	O
treeing	O
"	O
)	O
,	O
but	O
also	O
through	O
shedding	O
of	O
the	O
active	O
material	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
To	O
prevent	O
over-pressurization	O
of	O
the	O
battery	O
casing	O
,	O
AGM	O
batteries	O
include	O
a	O
one-way	O
blow-off	O
valve	O
,	O
and	O
are	O
often	O
known	O
as	O
"	O
valve-regulated	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
"	O
,	O
or	O
VRLA	O
,	O
designs	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
is	O
one	O
of	O
the	O
reasons	O
a	O
conventional	O
car	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
can	O
be	O
ruined	O
by	O
leaving	O
it	O
stored	O
for	O
a	O
long	O
period	O
and	O
then	O
used	O
and	O
recharged	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
a	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
battery	I-Device
loses	O
water	O
,	O
its	O
acid	O
concentration	O
increases	O
,	O
increasing	O
the	O
corrosion	O
rate	O
of	O
the	O
plates	O
significantly	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
During	O
the	O
1970s	O
,	O
researchers	O
developed	O
the	O
sealed	O
version	O
or	O
gel	O
battery	O
,	O
which	O
mixes	O
a	O
silica	O
gelling	O
agent	O
into	O
the	O
electrolyte	O
(	O
silica	O
gel	O
-	O
based	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
used	O
in	O
portable	O
radios	O
from	O
the	O
early	O
1930s	O
were	O
not	O
fully	O
sealed	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
a	O
valve	O
regulated	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
(	O
VRLA	O
)	O
battery	O
,	O
the	O
hydrogen	O
and	O
oxygen	O
produced	O
in	O
the	O
cells	O
largely	O
recombine	O
into	O
water	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Most	O
of	O
the	O
world	O
's	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
are	O
automobile	B-Algorithm
starting	I-Algorithm
,	I-Algorithm
lighting	I-Algorithm
,	I-Algorithm
and	I-Algorithm
ignition	I-Algorithm
(	O
SLI	O
)	O
batteries	O
,	O
with	O
an	O
estimated	O
320	O
million	O
units	O
shipped	O
in	O
1999	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
are	O
used	O
in	O
emergency	O
lighting	O
and	O
to	O
power	O
sump	O
pumps	O
in	O
case	O
of	O
power	O
failure	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Large	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
are	O
also	O
used	O
to	O
power	O
the	O
electric	O
motors	O
in	O
diesel-electric	O
(	O
conventional	O
)	O
submarines	O
when	O
submerged	O
,	O
and	O
are	O
used	O
as	O
emergency	O
power	O
on	O
nuclear	O
submarines	O
as	O
well	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Valve-regulated	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
cannot	O
spill	O
their	O
electrolyte	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
electric	O
forklifts	B-Operating_System
use	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
,	O
where	O
the	O
weight	O
is	O
used	O
as	O
part	O
of	O
a	O
counterweight	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
were	O
used	O
to	O
supply	O
the	O
filament	O
(	O
heater	O
)	O
voltage	O
,	O
with	O
2V	O
common	O
in	O
early	O
vacuum	O
tube	O
(	O
valve	O
)	O
radio	O
receivers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
designed	O
for	O
starting	O
automotive	O
engines	O
are	O
not	O
designed	O
for	O
deep	O
discharge	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Starting	O
batteries	O
are	O
of	O
lighter	O
weight	O
than	O
deep-cycle	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
of	O
the	O
same	O
size	O
,	O
because	O
the	O
thinner	O
and	O
lighter	O
cell	O
plates	O
do	O
not	O
extend	O
all	O
the	O
way	O
to	O
the	O
bottom	O
of	O
the	O
battery	O
case	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Specially	O
designed	O
deep-cycle	B-Algorithm
cells	O
are	O
much	O
less	O
susceptible	O
to	O
degradation	O
due	O
to	O
cycling	O
,	O
and	O
are	O
required	O
for	O
applications	O
where	O
the	O
batteries	O
are	O
regularly	O
discharged	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
photovoltaic	O
systems	O
,	O
electric	O
vehicles	O
(	O
forklift	B-Operating_System
,	O
golf	O
cart	O
,	O
electric	O
cars	O
,	O
and	O
others	O
)	O
and	O
uninterruptible	O
power	O
supplies	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
batteries	O
are	O
designed	O
as	O
a	O
compromise	O
between	O
starter	O
(	O
high-current	O
)	O
and	O
deep	B-Algorithm
cycle	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
They	O
are	O
able	O
to	O
be	O
discharged	O
to	O
a	O
greater	O
degree	O
than	O
automotive	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
,	O
but	O
less	O
so	O
than	O
deep-cycle	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
They	O
may	O
be	O
referred	O
to	O
as	O
"	O
marine/motorhome	O
"	O
batteries	O
,	O
or	O
"	O
leisure	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
capacity	O
of	O
a	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
battery	I-Device
is	O
not	O
a	O
fixed	O
quantity	O
but	O
varies	O
according	O
to	O
how	O
quickly	O
it	O
is	O
discharged	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
empirical	O
relationship	O
between	O
discharge	O
rate	O
and	O
capacity	O
is	O
known	O
as	O
Peukert	B-Algorithm
's	I-Algorithm
law	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
long	O
as	O
the	O
charging	O
voltage	O
stays	O
below	O
the	O
gassing	O
voltage	O
(	O
about	O
14.4	O
volts	O
in	O
a	O
normal	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
battery	I-Device
)	O
,	O
battery	O
damage	O
is	O
unlikely	O
,	O
and	O
in	O
time	O
the	O
battery	O
should	O
return	O
to	O
a	O
nominally	O
charged	O
state	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
lose	O
the	O
ability	O
to	O
accept	O
a	O
charge	O
when	O
discharged	O
for	O
too	O
long	O
due	O
to	O
sulfation	O
,	O
the	O
crystallization	O
of	O
lead	O
sulfate	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
lead	O
sulfate	O
first	O
forms	O
in	O
a	O
finely	O
divided	O
,	O
amorphous	O
state	O
and	O
easily	O
reverts	O
to	O
lead	O
,	O
lead	O
dioxide	O
,	O
and	O
sulfuric	O
acid	O
when	O
the	O
battery	O
recharges	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Sulfation	O
occurs	O
in	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
when	O
they	O
are	O
subjected	O
to	O
insufficient	O
charging	O
during	O
normal	O
operation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
SLI	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
(	O
starting	O
,	O
lighting	O
,	O
ignition	O
;	O
e.g.	O
,	O
car	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
)	O
suffer	O
the	O
most	O
deterioration	O
because	O
vehicles	O
normally	O
stand	O
unused	O
for	O
relatively	O
long	O
periods	O
of	O
time	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Deep-cycle	B-Algorithm
and	O
motive	O
power	O
batteries	O
are	O
subjected	O
to	O
regular	O
controlled	O
overcharging	O
,	O
eventually	O
failing	O
due	O
to	O
corrosion	O
of	O
the	O
positive	O
plate	O
grids	O
rather	O
than	O
sulfation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
commercial	B-Algorithm
products	I-Algorithm
claiming	I-Algorithm
to	I-Algorithm
achieve	I-Algorithm
desulfation	I-Algorithm
through	O
various	O
techniques	O
such	O
as	O
pulse	O
charging	O
,	O
but	O
there	O
are	O
no	O
peer-reviewed	O
publications	O
verifying	O
their	O
claims	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Sulfation	O
prevention	O
remains	O
the	O
best	O
course	O
of	O
action	O
,	O
by	O
periodically	O
fully	O
charging	O
the	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
typical	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
battery	I-Device
contains	O
a	O
mixture	O
with	O
varying	O
concentrations	O
of	O
water	O
and	O
acid	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Repeated	O
cycles	B-Algorithm
of	O
partial	O
charging	O
and	O
discharging	O
will	O
increase	O
stratification	O
of	O
the	O
electrolyte	O
,	O
reducing	O
the	O
capacity	O
and	O
performance	O
of	O
the	O
battery	O
because	O
the	O
lack	O
of	O
acid	O
on	O
top	O
limits	O
plate	O
activation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Individual	O
cells	O
within	O
a	O
battery	O
can	O
also	O
short	B-Application
circuit	I-Application
,	O
causing	O
an	O
explosion	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Using	O
goggles	B-Application
instead	O
of	O
a	O
face	O
shield	O
sacrifices	O
safety	O
by	O
leaving	O
the	O
face	O
exposed	O
to	O
possible	O
flying	O
acid	O
,	O
case	O
or	O
battery	O
fragments	O
,	O
and	O
heat	O
from	O
a	O
potential	O
explosion	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
auto	O
industry	O
uses	O
over	O
of	O
lead	O
every	O
year	O
,	O
with	O
90%	O
going	O
to	O
conventional	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
vehicle	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
According	O
to	O
the	O
Battery	O
Council	O
,	O
an	O
industry	O
group	O
,	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
battery	I-Device
recycling	O
is	O
one	O
of	O
the	O
most	O
successful	O
recycling	O
programs	O
in	O
the	O
world	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
ranking	O
identifies	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
battery	I-Device
recycling	O
as	O
the	O
world	O
's	O
most	O
deadly	O
industrial	O
process	O
,	O
in	O
terms	O
of	O
Disability-adjusted	O
life	O
years	O
lost	O
—	O
resulting	O
in	O
2,000,000	O
to	O
4,800,000	O
estimated	O
years	O
of	O
individual	O
human	O
life	O
lost	O
,	O
globally	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Continuous	O
improvement	O
in	O
battery	B-Algorithm
recycling	I-Algorithm
plants	O
and	O
furnace	O
designs	O
is	O
required	O
to	O
keep	O
pace	O
with	O
emission	O
standards	O
for	O
lead	O
smelters	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Chemical	O
additives	O
have	O
been	O
used	O
ever	O
since	O
the	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
battery	I-Device
became	O
a	O
commercial	O
item	O
,	O
to	O
reduce	O
lead	O
sulfate	O
build-up	O
on	O
plates	O
and	O
improve	O
battery	O
condition	O
when	O
added	O
to	O
the	O
electrolyte	O
of	O
a	O
vented	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
battery	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Residual	O
EDTA	O
in	O
the	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
cell	O
forms	O
organic	O
acids	O
which	O
will	O
accelerate	O
corrosion	O
of	O
the	O
lead	O
plates	O
and	O
internal	O
connectors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Corrosion	O
of	O
the	O
external	O
metal	O
parts	O
of	O
the	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
battery	I-Device
results	O
from	O
a	O
chemical	O
reaction	O
of	O
the	O
battery	O
terminals	O
,	O
plugs	O
,	O
and	O
connectors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Acid	O
fumes	O
that	O
vaporize	O
through	O
the	O
vent	O
caps	O
,	O
often	O
caused	O
by	O
overcharging	O
,	O
and	O
insufficient	O
battery	B-Algorithm
box	I-Algorithm
ventilation	O
can	O
allow	O
the	O
sulfuric	O
acid	O
fumes	O
to	O
build	O
up	O
and	O
react	O
with	O
the	O
exposed	O
metals	O
.	O
</s>
