<s>
The	O
Internet	B-General_Concept
backbone	I-General_Concept
may	O
be	O
defined	O
by	O
the	O
principal	B-General_Concept
data	I-General_Concept
routes	I-General_Concept
between	O
large	O
,	O
strategically	O
interconnected	O
computer	B-Architecture
networks	I-Architecture
and	O
core	B-Protocol
routers	I-Protocol
of	O
the	O
Internet	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
data	O
routes	O
are	O
hosted	O
by	O
commercial	O
,	O
government	O
,	O
academic	O
and	O
other	O
high-capacity	O
network	O
centers	O
,	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
the	O
Internet	B-Protocol
exchange	I-Protocol
points	I-Protocol
and	O
network	O
access	O
points	O
,	O
that	O
exchange	O
Internet	O
traffic	O
between	O
the	O
countries	O
,	O
continents	O
,	O
and	O
across	O
the	O
oceans	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Internet	O
service	O
providers	O
,	O
often	O
Tier	B-Architecture
1	I-Architecture
networks	I-Architecture
,	O
participate	O
in	O
Internet	B-General_Concept
backbone	I-General_Concept
traffic	O
by	O
privately	O
negotiated	O
interconnection	O
agreements	O
,	O
primarily	O
governed	O
by	O
the	O
principle	O
of	O
settlement-free	B-Protocol
peering	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Internet	O
,	O
and	O
consequently	O
its	O
backbone	B-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
,	O
do	O
not	O
rely	O
on	O
central	O
control	O
or	O
coordinating	O
facilities	O
,	O
nor	O
do	O
they	O
implement	O
any	O
global	O
network	O
policies	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
resilience	B-General_Concept
of	O
the	O
Internet	O
results	O
from	O
its	O
principal	O
architectural	O
features	O
,	O
most	O
notably	O
the	O
idea	O
of	O
placing	O
as	O
few	O
network	O
state	B-Application
and	O
control	O
functions	O
as	O
possible	O
in	O
the	O
network	O
elements	O
and	O
instead	O
relying	O
on	O
the	O
endpoints	O
of	O
communication	O
to	O
handle	O
most	O
of	O
the	O
processing	O
to	O
ensure	O
data	O
integrity	O
,	O
reliability	O
,	O
and	O
authentication	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
addition	O
,	O
the	O
high	O
degree	O
of	O
redundancy	O
of	O
today	O
's	O
network	O
links	O
and	O
sophisticated	O
real-time	O
routing	B-Protocol
protocols	O
provide	O
alternate	O
paths	O
of	O
communications	O
for	O
load	O
balancing	O
and	O
congestion	O
avoidance	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
largest	O
providers	O
,	O
known	O
as	O
Tier	B-Architecture
1	I-Architecture
networks	I-Architecture
,	O
have	O
such	O
comprehensive	O
networks	O
that	O
they	O
do	O
not	O
purchase	O
transit	B-Application
agreements	I-Application
from	O
other	O
providers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Internet	B-General_Concept
backbone	I-General_Concept
consists	O
of	O
many	O
networks	O
owned	O
by	O
numerous	O
companies	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Optical	B-Architecture
fiber	I-Architecture
trunk	O
lines	O
consist	O
of	O
many	O
fiber	O
cables	O
bundled	O
to	O
increase	O
capacity	O
,	O
or	O
bandwidth	B-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Fiber-optic	B-Application
communication	I-Application
remains	O
the	O
medium	O
of	O
choice	O
for	O
Internet	B-General_Concept
backbone	I-General_Concept
providers	O
for	O
several	O
reasons	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Fiber-optics	B-Architecture
allow	O
for	O
fast	O
data	O
speeds	O
and	O
large	O
bandwidth	B-Algorithm
,	O
they	O
suffer	O
relatively	O
little	O
attenuation	O
,	O
allowing	O
them	O
to	O
cover	O
long	O
distances	O
with	O
few	O
repeaters	O
,	O
and	O
they	O
are	O
also	O
immune	O
to	O
crosstalk	O
and	O
other	O
forms	O
of	O
electromagnetic	O
interference	O
which	O
plague	O
electrical	O
transmission	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
real-time	O
routing	B-Protocol
protocols	O
and	O
redundancy	O
built	O
into	O
the	O
backbone	B-General_Concept
is	O
also	O
able	O
to	O
reroute	O
traffic	O
in	O
case	O
of	O
a	O
failure	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
data	O
rates	O
of	O
backbone	B-General_Concept
lines	O
have	O
increased	O
over	O
time	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1998	O
,	O
all	O
of	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
 '	O
backbone	B-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
had	O
utilized	O
the	O
slowest	O
data	O
rate	O
of	O
45	O
Mbit/s	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
technological	O
improvements	O
allowed	O
for	O
41	O
percent	O
of	O
backbones	B-General_Concept
to	O
have	O
data	O
rates	O
of	O
2,488	O
Mbit/s	O
or	O
faster	O
by	O
the	O
mid	O
2000s	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
first	O
packet-switched	B-Protocol
computer	I-Protocol
networks	I-Protocol
,	O
the	O
NPL	B-Protocol
network	I-Protocol
and	O
the	O
ARPANET	O
were	O
interconnected	O
in	O
1973	O
via	O
University	O
College	O
London	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
ARPANET	O
used	O
a	O
backbone	B-General_Concept
of	O
routers	B-Protocol
called	O
Interface	B-Protocol
Message	I-Protocol
Processors	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
Other	O
packet-switched	B-Protocol
computer	I-Protocol
networks	I-Protocol
proliferated	O
starting	O
in	O
the	O
1970s	O
,	O
eventually	O
adopting	O
TCP/IP	O
protocols	O
,	O
or	O
being	O
replaced	O
by	O
newer	O
networks	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
National	O
Science	O
Foundation	O
created	O
the	O
National	O
Science	O
Foundation	O
Network	O
(	O
NSFNET	O
)	O
in	O
1986	O
by	O
funding	O
six	O
networking	O
sites	O
using	O
interconnecting	O
links	O
,	O
with	O
peering	B-Protocol
to	O
the	O
ARPANET	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
IBM	O
,	O
MCI	B-Application
and	O
Merit	O
upgraded	O
the	O
backbone	B-General_Concept
to	O
bandwidth	B-Algorithm
(	O
T3	O
)	O
in	O
1991	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Within	O
a	O
few	O
years	O
,	O
the	O
dominance	O
of	O
the	O
NSFNet	O
backbone	B-General_Concept
led	O
to	O
the	O
decommissioning	O
of	O
the	O
redundant	O
ARPANET	O
infrastructure	O
in	O
1990	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
early	O
days	O
of	O
the	O
Internet	O
,	O
backbone	B-General_Concept
providers	O
exchanged	O
their	O
traffic	O
at	O
government-sponsored	O
network	O
access	O
points	O
(	O
NAPs	O
)	O
,	O
until	O
the	O
government	O
privatized	O
the	O
Internet	O
,	O
and	O
transferred	O
the	O
NAPs	O
to	O
commercial	O
providers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Because	O
of	O
the	O
overlap	O
and	O
synergy	O
between	O
long-distance	O
telephone	O
networks	O
and	O
backbone	B-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
,	O
the	O
largest	O
long-distance	O
voice	O
carriers	O
such	O
as	O
AT&T	O
Inc.	O
,	O
MCI	B-Application
(	O
acquired	O
in	O
2006	O
by	O
Verizon	O
)	O
,	O
Sprint	O
,	O
and	O
Lumen	B-Application
also	O
own	O
some	O
of	O
the	O
largest	O
Internet	B-General_Concept
backbone	I-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
backbone	B-General_Concept
providers	O
sell	O
their	O
services	O
to	O
Internet	O
service	O
providers(ISPs )	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
companies	O
operate	O
their	O
own	O
backbones	B-General_Concept
which	O
are	O
all	O
interconnected	O
at	O
various	O
Internet	O
exchange	O
points(IXPs )	O
around	O
the	O
world	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
order	O
for	O
data	O
to	O
navigate	O
this	O
web	O
,	O
it	O
is	O
necessary	O
to	O
have	O
backbone	B-Protocol
routers	I-Protocol
—	O
routers	B-Protocol
powerful	O
enough	O
to	O
handle	O
information	O
—	O
on	O
the	O
Internet	B-General_Concept
backbone	I-General_Concept
and	O
are	O
capable	O
of	O
directing	O
data	O
to	O
other	O
routers	B-Protocol
in	O
order	O
to	O
send	O
it	O
to	O
its	O
final	O
destination	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Backbone	B-General_Concept
providers	O
of	O
roughly	O
equivalent	O
market	O
share	O
regularly	O
create	O
agreements	O
called	O
peering	B-Protocol
agreements	O
,	O
which	O
allow	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
another	O
's	O
network	O
to	O
hand	O
off	O
traffic	O
where	O
it	O
is	O
ultimately	O
delivered	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Antitrust	O
authorities	O
have	O
acted	O
to	O
ensure	O
that	O
no	O
provider	O
grows	O
large	O
enough	O
to	O
dominate	O
the	O
backbone	B-General_Concept
market	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
,	O
the	O
Federal	O
Communications	O
Commission	O
has	O
decided	O
not	O
to	O
monitor	O
the	O
competitive	O
aspects	O
of	O
the	O
Internet	B-General_Concept
backbone	I-General_Concept
interconnection	O
relationships	O
as	O
long	O
as	O
the	O
market	O
continues	O
to	O
function	O
well	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Backbone	B-General_Concept
providers	O
of	O
unequal	O
market	O
share	O
usually	O
create	O
agreements	O
called	O
transit	B-Application
agreements	I-Application
,	O
and	O
usually	O
contain	O
some	O
type	O
of	O
monetary	O
agreement	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Evidently	O
the	O
networks	O
had	O
not	O
been	O
physically	O
interrupted	O
,	O
as	O
the	O
Internet	B-Application
transit	I-Application
traffic	O
through	O
Egypt	O
was	O
unaffected	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Instead	O
,	O
the	O
government	O
shut	O
down	O
the	O
Border	O
Gateway	O
Protocol(BGP )	O
sessions	O
announcing	O
local	O
routes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
BGP	B-Protocol
is	O
responsible	O
for	O
routing	B-Protocol
traffic	O
between	O
ISPs	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Europe	O
is	O
a	O
major	O
contributor	O
to	O
the	O
growth	O
of	O
the	O
international	O
backbone	B-General_Concept
as	O
well	O
as	O
a	O
contributor	O
to	O
the	O
growth	O
of	O
Internet	O
bandwidth	B-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2003	O
,	O
Europe	O
was	O
credited	O
with	O
82	O
percent	O
of	O
the	O
world	O
's	O
international	O
cross-border	O
bandwidth	B-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
company	O
Level	O
3	O
Communications	O
began	O
to	O
launch	O
a	O
line	O
of	O
dedicated	O
Internet	O
access	O
and	O
virtual	B-Application
private	I-Application
network	I-Application
services	O
in	O
2011	O
,	O
giving	O
large	O
companies	O
direct	O
access	O
to	O
the	O
tier3	O
backbone	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Connecting	O
companies	O
directly	O
to	O
the	O
backbone	B-General_Concept
will	O
provide	O
enterprises	O
faster	O
Internet	O
service	O
which	O
meets	O
a	O
large	O
market	O
demand	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Certain	O
countries	O
around	O
the	O
Caucasus	O
have	O
very	O
simple	O
backbone	B-General_Concept
networks	I-General_Concept
;	O
for	O
example	O
,	O
in	O
2011	O
,	O
a	O
70-year-old	O
woman	O
in	O
Georgia	O
pierced	O
a	O
fiber	B-Architecture
backbone	I-Architecture
line	O
with	O
a	O
shovel	O
and	O
left	O
the	O
neighboring	O
country	O
of	O
Armenia	O
without	O
Internet	O
access	O
for	O
12	O
hours	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
country	O
has	O
since	O
made	O
major	O
developments	O
to	O
the	O
fiber	B-Architecture
backbone	I-Architecture
infrastructure	O
,	O
but	O
progress	O
is	O
slow	O
due	O
to	O
lack	O
of	O
government	O
funding	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Japan	O
's	O
Internet	B-General_Concept
backbone	I-General_Concept
needs	O
to	O
be	O
very	O
efficient	O
due	O
to	O
high	O
demand	O
for	O
the	O
Internet	O
and	O
technology	O
in	O
general	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
Japan	O
has	O
a	O
demand	O
for	O
fiber	O
to	O
the	O
home	O
,	O
Japan	O
is	O
looking	O
into	O
tapping	O
a	O
fiber-optic	B-Application
backbone	B-General_Concept
line	O
of	O
Nippon	O
Telegraph	O
and	O
Telephone(NTT )	O
,	O
a	O
domestic	O
backbone	B-General_Concept
carrier	O
,	O
in	O
order	O
to	O
deliver	O
this	O
service	O
at	O
cheaper	O
prices	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
some	O
instances	O
,	O
the	O
companies	O
that	O
own	O
certain	O
sections	O
of	O
the	O
Internet	B-General_Concept
backbone	I-General_Concept
's	O
physical	O
infrastructure	O
depend	O
on	O
competition	O
in	O
order	O
to	O
keep	O
the	O
Internet	O
market	O
profitable	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
imposition	O
of	O
discriminatory	O
pricing	O
by	O
the	O
large	O
companies	O
then	O
results	O
in	O
market	O
inefficiencies	O
and	O
stagnation	O
,	O
and	O
ultimately	O
affects	O
the	O
efficiency	O
of	O
the	O
Internet	B-General_Concept
backbone	I-General_Concept
networks	O
that	O
service	O
the	O
nation	O
.	O
</s>
