<s>
The	O
IBM	B-Device
7030	I-Device
,	O
also	O
known	O
as	O
Stretch	O
,	O
was	O
IBM	O
's	O
first	O
transistorized	B-Device
supercomputer	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	B-General_Concept
was	O
the	O
fastest	O
computer	O
in	O
the	O
world	O
from	O
1961	O
until	O
the	O
first	O
CDC	B-Device
6600	I-Device
became	O
operational	O
in	O
1964	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Originally	O
designed	O
to	O
meet	O
a	O
requirement	O
formulated	O
by	O
Edward	O
Teller	O
at	O
Lawrence	O
Livermore	O
National	O
Laboratory	O
,	O
the	O
first	O
example	O
was	O
delivered	O
to	O
Los	O
Alamos	O
National	O
Laboratory	O
in	O
1961	O
,	O
and	O
a	O
second	O
customized	O
version	O
,	O
the	O
IBM	B-Device
7950	I-Device
Harvest	I-Device
,	O
to	O
the	O
National	O
Security	O
Agency	O
in	O
1962	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Stretch	O
at	O
the	O
Atomic	O
Weapons	O
Research	O
Establishment	O
at	O
Aldermaston	O
,	O
England	O
was	O
heavily	O
used	O
by	O
researchers	O
there	O
and	O
at	O
AERE	O
Harwell	O
,	O
but	O
only	O
after	O
the	O
development	O
of	O
the	O
S2	O
Fortran	B-Application
Compiler	O
which	O
was	O
the	O
first	O
to	O
add	O
dynamic	B-Data_Structure
arrays	I-Data_Structure
,	O
and	O
which	O
was	O
later	O
ported	O
to	O
the	O
Ferranti	B-Device
Atlas	I-Device
of	O
Atlas	B-Device
Computer	I-Device
Laboratory	O
at	O
Chilton	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
PC	O
World	O
magazine	O
named	O
Stretch	O
one	O
of	O
the	O
biggest	O
project	O
management	O
failures	O
in	O
IT	B-General_Concept
history	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
project	O
lead	O
,	O
,	O
was	O
initially	O
made	O
a	O
scapegoat	O
for	O
his	O
role	O
in	O
the	O
"	O
failure	O
"	O
,	O
but	O
as	O
the	O
success	O
of	O
the	O
IBM	B-Application
System/360	I-Application
became	O
obvious	O
,	O
he	O
was	O
given	O
an	O
official	O
apology	O
and	O
,	O
in	O
1966	O
was	O
made	O
an	O
IBM	O
Fellow	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
spite	O
of	O
Stretch	O
's	O
failure	O
to	O
meet	O
its	O
own	O
performance	O
goals	O
,	O
it	B-General_Concept
served	O
as	O
the	O
basis	O
for	O
many	O
of	O
the	O
design	O
features	O
of	O
the	O
successful	O
IBM	B-Application
System/360	I-Application
,	O
which	O
was	O
announced	O
in	O
1964	O
and	O
first	O
shipped	O
in	O
1965	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Proposals	O
were	O
requested	O
from	O
IBM	O
and	O
UNIVAC	O
for	O
this	O
new	O
system	O
,	O
to	O
be	O
called	O
Livermore	O
Automatic	O
Reaction	O
Calculator	O
or	O
LARC	B-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Just	O
after	O
they	O
finished	O
and	O
were	O
about	O
to	O
present	O
the	O
proposal	O
,	O
Ralph	O
Palmer	O
stopped	O
them	O
and	O
said	O
,	O
"	O
It	B-General_Concept
's	O
a	O
mistake.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
proposed	O
design	O
would	O
have	O
been	O
built	O
with	O
either	O
point-contact	O
transistors	B-Application
or	O
surface-barrier	O
transistors	B-Application
,	O
both	O
likely	O
to	O
be	O
soon	O
outperformed	O
by	O
the	O
then	O
newly	O
invented	O
diffusion	O
transistor	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
We	O
do	O
not	O
know	O
precisely	O
what	O
it	B-General_Concept
will	O
take	O
but	O
we	O
think	O
it	B-General_Concept
will	O
be	O
another	O
million	O
dollars	O
and	O
another	O
year	O
,	O
and	O
we	O
do	O
not	O
know	O
how	O
fast	O
it	B-General_Concept
will	O
run	O
but	O
we	O
would	O
like	O
to	O
shoot	O
for	O
ten	O
million	O
instructions	O
per	O
second.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
Livermore	O
was	O
not	O
impressed	O
,	O
and	O
in	O
May	O
1955	O
they	O
announced	O
that	O
UNIVAC	O
had	O
won	O
the	O
LARC	B-Device
contract	O
,	O
now	O
called	O
the	O
Livermore	O
Automatic	O
Research	O
Computer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
LARC	B-Device
would	O
eventually	O
be	O
delivered	O
in	O
June	O
1960	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
September	O
1955	O
,	O
fearing	O
that	O
Los	O
Alamos	O
National	O
Laboratory	O
might	O
also	O
order	O
a	O
LARC	B-Device
,	O
IBM	O
submitted	O
a	O
preliminary	O
proposal	O
for	O
a	O
high-performance	O
binary	O
computer	O
based	O
on	O
the	O
improved	O
version	O
of	O
the	O
design	O
that	O
Livermore	O
had	O
rejected	O
,	O
which	O
they	O
received	O
with	O
interest	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
November	O
1956	O
,	O
IBM	O
won	O
the	O
contract	O
with	O
the	O
aggressive	O
performance	O
goal	O
of	O
a	O
"	O
speed	O
at	O
least	O
100	O
times	O
the	O
IBM	B-Device
704	I-Device
"	O
(	O
i.e.	O
</s>
<s>
During	O
design	O
,	O
it	B-General_Concept
proved	O
necessary	O
to	O
reduce	O
the	O
clock	O
speeds	O
,	O
making	O
it	B-General_Concept
clear	O
that	O
Stretch	O
could	O
not	O
meet	O
its	O
aggressive	O
performance	O
goals	O
,	O
but	O
estimates	O
of	O
performance	O
ranged	O
from	O
60	O
to	O
100	O
times	O
the	O
IBM	B-Device
704	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1960	O
,	O
the	O
price	O
of	O
$13.5	O
million	O
was	O
set	O
for	O
the	O
IBM	B-Device
7030	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1961	O
,	O
actual	O
benchmarks	O
indicated	O
that	O
the	O
performance	O
of	O
the	O
IBM	B-Device
7030	I-Device
was	O
only	O
about	O
30	O
times	O
the	O
IBM	B-Device
704	I-Device
(	O
i.e.	O
</s>
<s>
Its	O
floating-point	B-Algorithm
addition	O
time	O
is	O
1.38	O
–	O
1.50	O
microseconds	O
,	O
multiplication	O
time	O
is	O
2.48	O
–	O
2.70	O
microseconds	O
,	O
and	O
division	O
time	O
is	O
9.00	O
–	O
9.90	O
microseconds	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
the	O
IBM	B-Device
7030	I-Device
was	O
not	O
considered	O
successful	O
,	O
it	B-General_Concept
spawned	O
many	O
technologies	O
incorporated	O
in	O
future	O
machines	O
that	O
were	O
highly	O
successful	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Standard	B-Device
Modular	I-Device
System	I-Device
transistor	B-Application
logic	O
was	O
the	O
basis	O
for	O
the	O
IBM	B-Device
7090	I-Device
line	O
of	O
scientific	O
computers	O
,	O
the	O
IBM	B-Device
7070	I-Device
and	O
7080	B-Device
business	O
computers	O
,	O
the	O
IBM	B-Device
7040	I-Device
and	O
IBM	B-Device
1400	I-Device
lines	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
IBM	B-Device
1620	I-Device
small	O
scientific	O
computer	O
;	O
the	O
7030	O
used	O
about	O
transistors	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
IBM	B-Device
7302	I-Device
Model	O
I	O
Core	O
Storage	O
units	O
were	O
also	O
used	O
in	O
the	O
IBM	B-Device
7090	I-Device
,	O
IBM	B-Device
7070	I-Device
and	O
IBM	B-Device
7080	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
were	O
all	O
concepts	O
later	O
incorporated	O
in	O
the	O
IBM	B-Application
System/360	I-Application
line	O
of	O
computers	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
most	O
later	O
central	B-General_Concept
processing	I-General_Concept
units	I-General_Concept
(	O
CPU	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Stephen	O
Dunwell	O
,	O
the	O
project	O
manager	O
who	O
became	O
a	O
scapegoat	O
when	O
Stretch	O
failed	O
commercially	O
,	O
pointed	O
out	O
soon	O
after	O
the	O
phenomenally	O
successful	O
1964	O
launch	O
of	O
System/360	B-Application
that	O
most	O
of	O
its	O
core	O
concepts	O
were	O
pioneered	O
by	O
Stretch	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
1966	O
he	O
had	O
received	O
an	O
apology	O
and	O
been	O
made	O
an	O
IBM	O
Fellow	O
,	O
a	O
high	O
honor	O
that	O
carried	O
with	O
it	B-General_Concept
resources	O
and	O
authority	O
to	O
pursue	O
one	O
's	O
desired	O
research	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Instruction	B-General_Concept
pipelining	I-General_Concept
,	O
prefetch	B-General_Concept
and	O
decoding	O
,	O
and	O
memory	B-General_Concept
interleaving	I-General_Concept
were	O
used	O
in	O
later	O
supercomputer	B-Architecture
designs	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
IBM	B-Application
System/360	I-Application
Models	O
91	B-Device
,	O
95	B-Device
and	O
195	B-Device
,	O
and	O
the	O
IBM	B-Device
3090	I-Device
series	I-Device
as	O
well	O
as	O
computers	O
from	O
other	O
manufacturers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
,	O
these	O
techniques	O
are	O
still	O
used	O
in	O
most	O
advanced	O
microprocessors	O
,	O
starting	O
with	O
the	O
1990s	O
generation	O
that	O
included	O
the	O
Intel	B-General_Concept
Pentium	I-General_Concept
and	O
the	O
Motorola/IBM	O
PowerPC	O
,	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
in	O
many	O
embedded	O
microprocessors	O
and	O
microcontrollers	O
from	O
various	O
manufacturers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
7030	O
CPU	O
uses	O
emitter-coupled	B-General_Concept
logic	I-General_Concept
(	O
originally	O
called	O
current-steering	O
logic	O
)	O
on	O
18	O
types	O
of	O
Standard	B-Device
Modular	I-Device
System	I-Device
(	O
SMS	O
)	O
cards	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	B-General_Concept
uses	O
4,025	O
double	O
cards	O
(	O
as	O
shown	O
)	O
and	O
18,747	O
single	O
cards	O
,	O
holding	O
169,100	O
transistors	B-Application
,	O
requiring	O
a	O
total	O
of	O
21kW	O
power	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	B-General_Concept
uses	O
high-speed	O
NPN	O
and	O
PNP	O
germanium	O
drift	O
transistors	B-Application
,	O
with	O
cut-off	O
frequency	O
over	O
100MHz	O
,	O
and	O
using	O
~	O
50mW	O
each	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
To	O
gain	O
speed	O
in	O
critical	O
areas	O
emitter-follower	B-General_Concept
logic	I-General_Concept
is	O
used	O
to	O
reduce	O
the	O
delay	O
to	O
about	O
10	O
ns	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	B-General_Concept
uses	O
the	O
same	O
core	B-General_Concept
memory	I-General_Concept
as	O
the	O
IBM	B-Device
7090	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
U.S.	O
National	O
Security	O
Agency	O
in	O
February	O
1962	O
as	O
the	O
main	O
CPU	O
of	O
the	O
IBM	B-Device
7950	I-Device
Harvest	I-Device
system	O
,	O
used	O
until	O
1976	O
,	O
when	O
the	O
IBM	O
7955	O
Tractor	O
tape	O
system	O
developed	O
problems	O
due	O
to	O
worn	O
cams	O
that	O
could	O
not	O
be	O
replaced	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
spring	O
of	O
1972	O
,	O
it	B-General_Concept
was	O
sold	O
to	O
Brigham	O
Young	O
University	O
,	O
where	O
it	B-General_Concept
was	O
used	O
by	O
the	O
physics	O
department	O
until	O
scrapped	O
in	O
1982	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Lawrence	O
Livermore	O
Laboratory	O
's	O
IBM	B-Device
7030	I-Device
(	O
except	O
for	O
its	O
core	B-General_Concept
memory	I-General_Concept
)	O
and	O
portions	O
of	O
the	O
MITRE	O
Corporation/Brigham	O
Young	O
University	O
IBM	B-Device
7030	I-Device
now	O
reside	O
in	O
the	O
Computer	O
History	O
Museum	O
collection	O
,	O
in	O
Mountain	O
View	O
,	O
California	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Fixed-point	O
numbers	O
are	O
variable	O
in	O
length	O
,	O
stored	O
in	O
either	O
binary	O
(	O
1	O
to	O
64	B-Device
bits	I-Device
)	O
or	O
decimal	O
(	O
1	O
to	O
16	O
digits	O
)	O
and	O
either	O
unsigned	O
format	O
or	O
sign/magnitude	B-Algorithm
format	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Floating	B-Algorithm
point	I-Algorithm
numbers	I-Algorithm
have	O
a	O
1-bit	O
exponent	O
flag	O
,	O
a	O
10-bit	O
exponent	O
,	O
a	O
1-bit	O
exponent	O
sign	O
,	O
a	O
48-bit	O
magnitude	O
,	O
and	O
a	O
4-bit	O
sign	O
byte	O
in	O
sign/magnitude	B-Algorithm
format	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Instructions	O
are	O
either	O
32-bit	O
or	O
64-bit	B-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Address	O
Mnemonic	O
Register	O
Stored	O
in	O
:	O
0	O
$Z	O
64-bit	B-Device
zero	O
:	O
always	O
reads	O
as	O
zero	O
,	O
cannot	O
be	O
changed	O
by	O
writes	O
Main	O
core	O
storage	O
1	O
$IT	O
interval	O
timer	O
(	O
bits	O
0	O
..	O
18	O
)	O
:	O
decremented	O
at	O
1024	O
Hz	O
,	O
recycles	O
about	O
every	O
8.5	O
minutes	O
,	O
at	O
zero	O
it	B-General_Concept
turns	O
on	O
the	O
"	O
time	O
signal	O
indicator	O
"	O
in	O
the	O
indicator	O
register	O
Index	O
core	O
storage	O
$TC	O
36-bit	O
time	O
clock	O
(	O
bits	O
28	O
..	O
63	O
)	O
:	O
count	O
of	O
1024	O
Hz	O
ticks	O
,	O
bits	O
38	O
..	O
63	O
increment	O
once	O
per	O
second	O
,	O
recycles	O
each	O
~	O
777	O
days	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
accumulator	B-General_Concept
and	O
index	O
registers	O
operate	O
in	O
sign-and-magnitude	O
format	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Main	O
memory	O
is	O
16K	O
to	O
256K	O
64-bit	B-Device
binary	O
words	O
,	O
in	O
banks	O
of	O
16K	O
.	O
</s>
