<s>
Machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
is	O
a	O
sub-field	O
of	O
computational	O
linguistics	O
that	O
investigates	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
software	O
to	O
translate	O
text	O
or	O
speech	O
from	O
one	O
natural	O
language	O
to	O
another	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
1950s	O
,	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
became	O
a	O
reality	O
in	O
research	O
,	O
although	O
references	O
to	O
the	O
subject	O
can	O
be	O
found	O
as	O
early	O
as	O
the	O
17th	O
century	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Georgetown	B-General_Concept
experiment	I-General_Concept
,	O
which	O
involved	O
successful	O
fully	O
automatic	B-Application
translation	I-Application
of	O
more	O
than	O
sixty	O
Russian	O
sentences	O
into	O
English	O
in	O
1954	O
,	O
was	O
one	O
of	O
the	O
earliest	O
recorded	O
projects	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Researchers	O
of	O
the	O
Georgetown	B-General_Concept
experiment	I-General_Concept
asserted	O
their	O
belief	O
that	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
would	O
be	O
a	O
solved	O
problem	O
within	O
three	O
to	O
five	O
years	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Consequently	O
,	O
the	O
success	O
of	O
the	O
experiment	O
ushered	O
in	O
an	O
era	O
of	O
significant	O
funding	O
for	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
research	O
in	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
achieved	O
progress	O
was	O
much	O
slower	O
than	O
expected	O
;	O
in	O
1966	O
,	O
the	O
ALPAC	B-General_Concept
report	I-General_Concept
found	O
that	O
ten	O
years	O
of	O
research	O
had	O
not	O
fulfilled	O
the	O
expectations	O
of	O
the	O
Georgetown	B-General_Concept
experiment	I-General_Concept
and	O
resulted	O
in	O
dramatically	O
reduced	O
funding	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Interest	O
grew	O
in	O
statistical	B-General_Concept
models	I-General_Concept
for	I-General_Concept
machine	I-General_Concept
translation	I-General_Concept
,	O
which	O
became	O
more	O
common	O
and	O
also	O
less	O
expensive	O
in	O
the	O
1980s	O
as	O
available	O
computational	O
power	O
increased	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Several	O
of	O
these	O
programs	O
are	O
available	O
online	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
Google	B-Application
Translate	I-Application
and	O
the	O
SYSTRAN	B-General_Concept
system	O
that	O
powers	O
AltaVista	O
's	O
BabelFish	B-Application
(	O
which	O
was	O
replaced	O
by	O
Microsoft	B-Application
Bing	I-Application
translator	I-Application
in	O
May	O
2012	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
origins	O
of	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
can	O
be	O
traced	O
back	O
to	O
the	O
work	O
of	O
Al-Kindi	O
,	O
a	O
9th-century	O
Arabic	O
cryptographer	O
who	O
developed	O
techniques	O
for	O
systemic	O
language	O
translation	O
,	O
including	O
cryptanalysis	O
,	O
frequency	O
analysis	O
,	O
and	O
probability	O
and	O
statistics	O
,	O
which	O
are	O
used	O
in	O
modern	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
idea	O
of	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
later	O
appeared	O
in	O
the	O
17th	O
century	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
mid-1930s	O
the	O
first	O
patents	O
for	O
"	O
translating	B-Application
machines	I-Application
"	O
were	O
applied	O
for	O
by	O
Georges	O
Artsrouni	O
,	O
for	O
an	O
automatic	O
bilingual	O
dictionary	O
using	O
paper	O
tape	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
first	O
set	O
of	O
proposals	O
for	O
computer	O
based	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
was	O
presented	O
in	O
1949	O
by	O
Warren	O
Weaver	O
,	O
a	O
researcher	O
at	O
the	O
Rockefeller	O
Foundation	O
,	O
"	O
Translation	O
memorandum	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
On	O
7	O
January	O
1954	O
the	O
Georgetown-IBM	B-General_Concept
experiment	I-General_Concept
was	O
held	O
in	O
New	O
York	O
at	O
the	O
head	O
office	O
of	O
IBM	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
was	O
the	O
first	O
public	O
demonstration	O
of	O
a	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
system	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Nevertheless	O
,	O
it	O
encouraged	O
the	O
idea	O
that	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
was	O
imminent	O
and	O
stimulated	O
the	O
financing	O
of	O
the	O
research	O
,	O
not	O
only	O
in	O
the	O
US	O
but	O
worldwide	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
At	O
the	O
end	O
of	O
the	O
1950s	O
,	O
Yehoshua	O
Bar-Hillel	O
was	O
asked	O
by	O
the	O
US	O
government	O
to	O
look	O
into	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
,	O
to	O
assess	O
the	O
possibility	O
of	O
fully	O
automatic	O
high-quality	O
translation	O
by	O
machines	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
At	O
the	O
time	O
,	O
this	O
type	O
of	O
semantic	O
ambiguity	O
could	O
only	O
be	O
solved	O
by	O
writing	O
source	O
texts	O
for	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
in	O
a	O
controlled	B-General_Concept
language	I-General_Concept
that	O
uses	O
a	O
vocabulary	O
in	O
which	O
each	O
word	O
has	O
exactly	O
one	O
meaning	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
great	O
blow	O
came	O
to	O
machine-translation	O
research	O
in	O
1966	O
with	O
the	O
publication	O
of	O
the	O
ALPAC	B-General_Concept
report	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
report	O
was	O
commissioned	O
by	O
the	O
US	O
government	O
and	O
delivered	O
by	O
ALPAC	B-General_Concept
,	O
the	O
Automatic	B-General_Concept
Language	I-General_Concept
Processing	I-General_Concept
Advisory	I-General_Concept
Committee	I-General_Concept
,	O
a	O
group	O
of	O
seven	O
scientists	O
convened	O
by	O
the	O
US	O
government	O
in	O
1964	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
report	O
concluded	O
that	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
was	O
more	O
expensive	O
,	O
less	O
accurate	O
and	O
slower	O
than	O
human	O
translation	O
,	O
and	O
that	O
despite	O
the	O
expenditures	O
,	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
was	O
not	O
likely	O
to	O
reach	O
the	O
quality	O
of	O
a	O
human	O
translator	O
in	O
the	O
near	O
future	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
publication	O
of	O
the	O
report	O
had	O
a	O
profound	O
impact	O
on	O
research	O
into	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
in	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
,	O
and	O
to	O
a	O
lesser	O
extent	O
the	O
Soviet	O
Union	O
and	O
United	O
Kingdom	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
US	O
the	O
main	O
exceptions	O
were	O
the	O
founders	O
of	O
Systran	B-General_Concept
(	O
Peter	B-General_Concept
Toma	I-General_Concept
)	O
and	O
Logos	B-Language
(	O
Bernard	O
Scott	O
)	O
,	O
who	O
established	O
their	O
companies	O
in	O
1968	O
and	O
1970	O
respectively	O
and	O
served	O
the	O
US	O
Department	O
of	O
Defense	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1970	O
,	O
the	O
Systran	B-General_Concept
system	O
was	O
installed	O
for	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
Air	O
Force	O
,	O
and	O
subsequently	O
by	O
the	O
Commission	O
of	O
the	O
European	O
Communities	O
in	O
1976	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
METEO	B-General_Concept
System	I-General_Concept
,	O
developed	O
at	O
the	O
Université	O
de	O
Montréal	O
,	O
was	O
installed	O
in	O
Canada	O
in	O
1977	O
to	O
translate	O
weather	O
forecasts	O
from	O
English	O
to	O
French	O
,	O
and	O
was	O
translating	O
close	O
to	O
80,000	O
words	O
per	O
day	O
or	O
30	O
million	O
words	O
per	O
year	O
until	O
it	O
was	O
replaced	O
by	O
a	O
competitor	O
's	O
system	O
on	O
30	O
September	O
2001	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
the	O
1980s	O
,	O
both	O
the	O
diversity	O
and	O
the	O
number	O
of	O
installed	O
systems	O
for	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
had	O
increased	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
number	O
of	O
systems	O
relying	O
on	O
mainframe	B-Architecture
technology	O
were	O
in	O
use	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
Systran	B-General_Concept
,	O
Logos	B-Language
,	O
Ariane-G5	O
,	O
and	O
Metal	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
a	O
result	O
of	O
the	O
improved	O
availability	O
of	O
microcomputers	B-Architecture
,	O
there	O
was	O
a	O
market	O
for	O
lower-end	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
systems	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
With	O
the	O
fifth	B-Device
generation	I-Device
computer	I-Device
Japan	O
intended	O
to	O
leap	O
over	O
its	O
competition	O
in	O
computer	O
hardware	O
and	O
software	O
,	O
and	O
one	O
project	O
that	O
many	O
large	O
Japanese	O
electronics	O
firms	O
found	O
themselves	O
involved	O
in	O
was	O
creating	O
software	O
for	O
translating	O
into	O
and	O
from	O
English	O
(	O
Fujitsu	O
,	O
Toshiba	O
,	O
NTT	O
,	O
Brother	O
,	O
Catena	O
,	O
Matsushita	O
,	O
Mitsubishi	O
,	O
Sharp	O
,	O
Sanyo	O
,	O
Hitachi	O
,	O
NEC	O
,	O
Panasonic	O
,	O
Kodensha	O
,	O
Nova	O
,	O
Oki	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
At	O
the	O
end	O
of	O
the	O
1980s	O
,	O
there	O
was	O
a	O
large	O
surge	O
in	O
a	O
number	O
of	O
novel	O
methods	O
for	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Makoto	O
Nagao	O
and	O
his	O
group	O
used	O
methods	O
based	O
on	O
large	O
numbers	O
of	O
translation	O
examples	O
,	O
a	O
technique	O
that	O
is	O
now	O
termed	O
example-based	B-General_Concept
machine	I-General_Concept
translation	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
During	O
the	O
1990s	O
,	O
encouraged	O
by	O
successes	O
in	O
speech	B-Application
recognition	I-Application
and	O
speech	B-Application
synthesis	I-Application
,	O
research	O
began	O
into	O
speech	O
translation	O
with	O
the	O
development	O
of	O
the	O
German	O
Verbmobil	B-General_Concept
project	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Forward	B-Language
Area	I-Language
Language	I-Language
Converter	I-Language
(	O
FALCon	O
)	O
system	O
,	O
a	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
technology	O
designed	O
by	O
the	O
Army	O
Research	O
Laboratory	O
,	O
was	O
fielded	O
1997	O
to	O
translate	O
documents	O
for	O
soldiers	O
in	O
Bosnia	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
was	O
significant	O
growth	O
in	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
as	O
a	O
result	O
of	O
the	O
advent	O
of	O
low-cost	O
and	O
more	O
powerful	O
computers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
was	O
in	O
the	O
early	O
1990s	O
that	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
began	O
to	O
make	O
the	O
transition	O
away	O
from	O
large	O
mainframe	B-Architecture
computers	I-Architecture
toward	O
personal	O
computers	O
and	O
workstations	B-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Intergraph	O
and	O
Systran	B-General_Concept
also	O
began	O
to	O
offer	O
PC	O
versions	O
around	O
this	O
time	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Sites	O
also	O
became	O
available	O
on	O
the	O
internet	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
AltaVista	O
's	O
Babel	B-Application
Fish	I-Application
(	O
using	O
Systran	B-General_Concept
technology	O
)	O
and	O
Google	B-Application
Language	I-Application
Tools	I-Application
(	O
also	O
initially	O
using	O
Systran	B-General_Concept
technology	O
exclusively	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
field	O
of	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
has	O
seen	O
major	O
changes	O
in	O
the	O
2000s	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
large	O
amount	O
of	O
research	O
was	O
done	O
into	O
statistical	B-General_Concept
machine	I-General_Concept
translation	I-General_Concept
and	O
example-based	B-General_Concept
machine	I-General_Concept
translation	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
area	O
of	O
speech	O
translation	O
,	O
research	O
was	O
focused	O
on	O
moving	O
from	O
domain-limited	O
systems	O
to	O
domain-unlimited	O
translation	B-Application
systems	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
French-German	O
project	O
Quaero	B-Application
investigated	O
the	O
possibility	O
of	O
making	O
use	O
of	O
machine	B-Application
translations	I-Application
for	O
a	O
multi-lingual	O
internet	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
past	O
decade	O
witnessed	O
neural	B-General_Concept
machine	I-General_Concept
translation	I-General_Concept
(	O
NMT	O
)	O
methods	O
replace	O
statistical	B-General_Concept
machine	I-General_Concept
translation	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
term	O
neural	B-General_Concept
machine	I-General_Concept
translation	I-General_Concept
was	O
coined	O
by	O
Bahdanau	O
et	O
al	O
and	O
Sutskever	O
et	O
al	O
who	O
also	O
published	O
the	O
first	O
research	O
regarding	O
this	O
topic	O
in	O
2014	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
first	O
large	O
scale	O
NMT	O
was	O
launched	O
by	O
Baidu	B-Application
in	O
2015	O
,	O
followed	O
by	O
Google	B-Algorithm
Neural	I-Algorithm
Machine	I-Algorithm
Translation	I-Algorithm
(	O
GNMT	B-Algorithm
)	O
in	O
2016	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
was	O
followed	O
by	O
other	O
translation	O
services	O
like	O
DeepL	B-Language
Translator	I-Language
and	O
the	O
adoption	O
of	O
NMT	O
technology	O
in	O
older	O
translation	O
services	O
like	O
Microsoft	B-Application
translator	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Neural	O
networks	O
use	O
a	O
single	O
end	O
to	O
end	O
neural	O
network	B-Architecture
architecture	I-Architecture
known	O
as	O
sequence	O
to	O
sequence	O
(	O
seq2seq	B-Algorithm
)	O
which	O
uses	O
two	O
recurrent	B-Algorithm
neural	I-Algorithm
networks	I-Algorithm
(	O
RNN	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Further	O
advancements	O
in	O
the	O
attention	O
layer	O
,	O
transformation	O
and	O
back	B-Algorithm
propagation	I-Algorithm
techniques	O
have	O
made	O
NMTs	O
flexible	O
and	O
adopted	O
in	O
most	O
machine	B-Application
translation	I-Application
,	O
summarization	O
and	O
chatbot	B-Application
technologies	O
.	O
</s>
