<s>
The	O
history	O
of	O
chess	B-Application
began	O
nearly	O
1500	O
years	O
ago	O
,	O
and	O
over	O
the	O
past	O
millennium	O
and	O
a	O
half	O
the	O
game	O
has	O
changed	O
drastically	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
No	O
technology	O
or	O
strategy	O
,	O
however	O
,	O
has	O
changed	O
chess	B-Application
as	O
much	O
as	O
the	O
introduction	O
of	O
chess	B-Application
engines	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Despite	O
only	O
coming	O
into	O
existence	O
within	O
the	O
previous	O
70	O
years	O
,	O
the	O
introduction	O
of	O
chess	B-Application
engines	I-Application
has	O
molded	O
and	O
defined	O
how	O
top	O
chess	B-Application
is	O
played	O
today	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
earliest	O
form	O
of	O
a	O
chess	B-Application
engine	I-Application
appears	O
in	O
the	O
18th	O
century	O
with	O
a	O
machine	O
named	O
the	O
Mechanical	O
Turk	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Created	O
by	O
Hungarian	O
inventor	O
Wolfgang	O
von	O
Kempelen	O
,	O
the	O
Mechanical	O
Turk	O
,	O
a	O
life	O
sized	O
human	O
model	O
,	O
debuted	O
in	O
1770	O
as	O
the	O
world	O
's	O
first	O
autonomous	O
chess	B-Application
robot	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Mechanical	O
Turk	O
could	O
play	O
chess	B-Application
and	O
beat	O
opponents	O
,	O
even	O
going	O
as	O
far	O
as	O
solving	O
the	O
iconic	O
knight	O
's	O
tour	O
chess	B-Application
puzzle	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
first	O
real	O
instance	O
of	O
a	O
chess	B-Application
computer	I-Application
would	O
appear	O
in	O
1912	O
,	O
with	O
an	O
automaton	O
named	O
El	O
Ajedrecista	O
built	O
by	O
Leonardo	O
Torres	O
y	O
Quevedo	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Unlike	O
the	O
Mechanical	O
Turk	O
,	O
El	O
Ajedrecista	O
was	O
actually	O
the	O
first	O
autonomous	O
machine	O
capable	O
of	O
playing	O
chess	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
El	O
Ajedrecista	O
marked	O
the	O
first	O
actual	O
chess	B-Application
engine	I-Application
,	O
and	O
created	O
lots	O
of	O
excitement	O
around	O
the	O
field	O
in	O
general	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Two	O
men	O
,	O
Alan	O
Turing	O
and	O
Claude	O
Shannon	O
pioneered	O
these	O
innovations	O
,	O
and	O
come	O
the	O
end	O
of	O
WW2	O
both	O
would	O
pick	O
up	O
an	O
interest	O
in	O
programming	O
a	O
chess	B-Application
engine	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1950	O
,	O
Claude	O
Shannon	O
would	O
publish	O
a	O
paper	O
detailing	O
a	O
program	O
that	O
could	O
potentially	O
play	O
chess	B-Application
against	O
a	O
human	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
year	O
later	O
,	O
Alan	O
Turing	O
would	O
create	O
the	O
first	O
computer	B-Application
chess	I-Application
playing	O
algorithm	O
,	O
yet	O
the	O
hardware	O
at	O
the	O
time	O
lacked	O
in	O
power	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1951	O
a	O
close	O
colleague	O
of	O
Turing	O
,	O
a	O
man	O
named	O
Dietrich	O
Prinz	O
,	O
would	O
manage	O
to	O
create	O
and	O
implement	O
a	O
basic	O
chess	B-Application
algorithm	O
that	O
was	O
capable	O
of	O
solving	O
mate	O
in	O
two	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
algorithm	O
ran	O
on	O
the	O
Ferranti	B-Device
Mark	I-Device
1	I-Device
,	O
the	O
first	O
commercially	O
available	O
computer	O
,	O
and	O
although	O
lacking	O
the	O
power	O
to	O
play	O
a	O
full	O
game	O
would	O
serve	O
as	O
a	O
proof	O
of	O
concept	O
for	O
chess	B-Application
computing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Finally	O
,	O
in	O
1957	O
an	O
IBM	O
engineer	O
named	O
Alex	O
Bernstein	O
created	O
the	O
world	O
's	O
first	O
fully	O
automated	O
chess	B-Application
engine	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Capable	O
of	O
playing	O
an	O
entire	O
game	O
,	O
this	O
engine	O
would	O
mark	O
the	O
real	O
beginning	O
of	O
chess	B-Application
computing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
rapid	O
advancement	O
of	O
computing	O
in	O
the	O
1960s	O
and	O
1970s	O
was	O
key	O
in	O
increasing	O
chess	B-Application
engine	I-Application
strength	O
,	O
both	O
drastic	O
software	O
and	O
hardware	O
innovations	O
lead	O
to	O
stronger	O
engines	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
most	O
iconic	O
game	O
algorithm	O
of	O
all	O
,	O
the	O
Minimax	B-Algorithm
algorithm	I-Algorithm
and	O
its	O
alpha-beta	B-Algorithm
pruning	I-Algorithm
optimization	O
,	O
was	O
and	O
remains	O
key	O
to	O
chess	B-Application
programming	I-Application
and	O
optimization	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Major	O
improvements	O
to	O
this	O
algorithm	O
would	O
be	O
developed	O
specifically	O
for	O
chess	B-Application
programming	I-Application
,	O
with	O
the	O
main	O
goal	O
of	O
increasing	O
search	O
depth	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
During	O
this	O
time	O
certain	O
chess	B-Application
grandmasters	O
would	O
also	O
devote	O
themselves	O
to	O
the	O
improvement	O
of	O
chess	B-Application
programming	I-Application
,	O
with	O
their	O
advanced	O
knowledge	O
of	O
the	O
game	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Most	O
notably	O
previous	O
World	O
Chess	B-Application
Champion	O
Mikhail	O
Botvinnik	O
,	O
who	O
wrote	O
several	O
papers	O
on	O
the	O
subject	O
,	O
specifically	O
related	O
to	O
move	O
selection	O
techniques	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Chess	B-Application
specific	O
hardware	O
also	O
became	O
prominent	O
for	O
chess	B-Application
engines	I-Application
in	O
this	O
time	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1978	O
a	O
chess	B-Application
engine	I-Application
named	O
Belle	B-General_Concept
would	O
win	O
the	O
North	O
American	O
Computer	B-Application
Chess	I-Application
Championship	O
run	O
by	O
the	O
Association	O
for	O
Computing	O
Machinery	O
,	O
the	O
engines	O
special	O
hardware	O
allowed	O
it	O
to	O
analyze	O
around	O
thirty	O
million	O
positions	O
in	O
three	O
minutes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
is	O
also	O
aided	O
by	O
the	O
fact	O
that	O
Belle	B-General_Concept
held	O
both	O
opening	O
and	O
ending	O
database	O
's	O
,	O
greatly	O
aiding	O
the	O
hardware	O
speed	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Belle	B-General_Concept
would	O
go	O
on	O
to	O
become	O
to	O
first	O
chess	B-Application
engine	I-Application
to	O
receive	O
a	O
Master	O
rating	O
two	O
years	O
later	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
chess	B-Application
engines	I-Application
of	O
1960s	O
and	O
1970s	O
failed	O
to	O
compete	O
with	O
top	O
chess	B-Application
players	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1968	O
,	O
International	O
Master	O
David	O
Levy	O
offered	O
$3000	O
to	O
any	O
chess	B-Application
engine	I-Application
that	O
could	O
best	O
him	O
in	O
the	O
next	O
ten	O
years	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1977	O
Levy	O
would	O
face	O
the	O
chess	B-Application
engine	I-Application
Kaissa	O
,	O
coming	O
out	O
without	O
losing	O
a	O
single	O
match	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1980	O
Edward	O
Fredkin	O
,	O
computer	O
science	O
professor	O
at	O
Carnegie	O
Mellon	O
University	O
,	O
would	O
offer	O
up	O
monetary	O
prizes	O
for	O
chess	B-Application
engines	I-Application
to	O
break	O
barriers	O
in	O
the	O
chess	B-Application
world	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
included	O
$	O
10,000	O
for	O
the	O
first	O
engine	O
to	O
reach	O
Grandmaster	O
level	O
,	O
and	O
$	O
100,000	O
for	O
the	O
first	O
engine	O
to	O
beat	O
a	O
chess	B-Application
world	O
champion	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Suddenly	O
competition	O
in	O
chess	B-Application
computing	O
had	O
become	O
very	O
real	O
,	O
and	O
top	O
minds	O
were	O
at	O
play	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Deep	B-General_Concept
Blue	I-General_Concept
would	O
begin	O
under	O
a	O
different	O
name	O
,	O
ChipTest	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
ChipTest	B-General_Concept
was	O
developed	O
and	O
built	O
by	O
Feng-hsiung	O
Hsu	O
,	O
Thomas	O
Anantharaman	O
and	O
Murray	O
Campbell	O
at	O
Carnegie	O
Mellon	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
They	O
would	O
initially	O
enter	O
the	O
engine	O
into	O
the	O
1986	O
North	O
American	O
Computer	B-Application
Chess	I-Application
Championship	O
and	O
fall	O
short	O
,	O
but	O
come	O
back	O
the	O
next	O
year	O
with	O
an	O
improved	O
version	O
and	O
win	O
the	O
competition	O
in	O
a	O
4-0	O
sweep	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
team	O
would	O
develop	O
a	O
new	O
machine	O
starting	O
1988	O
,	O
named	O
Deep	B-General_Concept
Thought	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Deep	B-General_Concept
Thought	I-General_Concept
had	O
significant	O
advantages	O
over	O
its	O
previous	O
version	O
,	O
and	O
would	O
stand	O
apart	O
from	O
its	O
competition	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Deep	B-General_Concept
Thought	I-General_Concept
would	O
continue	O
on	O
to	O
win	O
the	O
World	O
Computer	B-Application
Chess	I-Application
Championship	O
with	O
an	O
unbeaten	O
5-0	O
record	O
the	O
following	O
year	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
the	O
following	O
years	O
Deep	B-General_Concept
Thought	I-General_Concept
would	O
remain	O
the	O
chess	B-Application
engine	I-Application
champion	O
,	O
eventually	O
becoming	O
Deep	B-General_Concept
Thought	I-General_Concept
2	O
and	O
winning	O
the	O
North	O
American	O
Computer	B-Application
Chess	I-Application
Championship	O
for	O
the	O
fifth	O
time	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1994	O
the	O
team	O
would	O
become	O
sponsored	O
by	O
IBM	O
,	O
the	O
time	O
of	O
Deep	B-General_Concept
Thought	I-General_Concept
was	O
ending	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Finally	O
in	O
1995	O
,	O
a	O
new	O
chess	B-Application
engine	I-Application
prototype	O
was	O
released	O
from	O
the	O
team	O
at	O
IBM	O
,	O
Deep	B-General_Concept
Blue	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
engine	O
would	O
be	O
completed	O
in	O
1996	O
,	O
and	O
in	O
the	O
same	O
year	O
would	O
go	O
on	O
to	O
face	O
chess	B-Application
champion	O
Garry	O
Kasparov	O
for	O
the	O
first	O
time	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
match	O
with	O
Kasparov	O
last	O
six	O
games	O
,	O
in	O
which	O
Deep	B-General_Concept
Blue	I-General_Concept
lost	O
4-2	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
But	O
this	O
still	O
marked	O
the	O
first	O
time	O
a	O
chess	B-Application
engine	I-Application
would	O
beat	O
the	O
current	O
chess	B-Application
champion	O
in	O
a	O
regular	O
match	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Yet	O
just	O
a	O
year	O
later	O
the	O
team	O
at	O
IBM	O
would	O
have	O
another	O
chance	O
,	O
Deep	B-General_Concept
Blue	I-General_Concept
was	O
upgraded	O
and	O
worked	O
on	O
by	O
both	O
engineers	O
and	O
top	O
chess	B-Application
grandmasters	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
a	O
match	O
that	O
would	O
become	O
iconic	O
,	O
Deep	B-General_Concept
Blue	I-General_Concept
would	O
become	O
the	O
first	O
chess	B-Application
engine	I-Application
to	O
beat	O
the	O
current	O
chess	B-Application
champion	O
in	O
a	O
full	O
chess	B-Application
match	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Despite	O
controversial	O
claims	O
on	O
Kasparov	O
's	O
behalf	O
that	O
IBM	O
had	O
cheated	O
,	O
the	O
result	O
marked	O
a	O
momentous	O
achievement	O
in	O
chess	B-Application
computing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Money	O
continued	O
to	O
flow	O
into	O
chess	B-Application
computing	O
and	O
the	O
industry	O
flourished	O
,	O
not	O
without	O
controversy	O
however	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2011	O
,	O
the	O
four	O
time	O
reigning	O
champion	O
engine	O
Rybka	B-Application
,	O
was	O
disqualified	O
from	O
the	O
World	O
Computer	B-Application
Chess	I-Application
Championship	O
for	O
code	O
plagiarism	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
New	O
competitions	O
would	O
also	O
spring	O
up	O
,	O
with	O
the	O
Top	O
Chess	B-Application
Engine	I-Application
Championship	O
being	O
founded	O
in	O
2010	O
with	O
a	O
stronger	O
emphasis	O
on	O
automated	O
play	O
,	O
longer	O
games	O
,	O
and	O
allowing	O
stronger	O
hardware	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Up	O
until	O
the	O
late	O
2010s	O
the	O
world	O
of	O
chess	B-Application
computing	O
was	O
advancing	O
slowly	O
,	O
but	O
the	O
progress	O
remained	O
consistent	O
and	O
the	O
engines	O
stronger	O
than	O
ever	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
That	O
was	O
until	O
2017	O
when	O
a	O
team	O
of	O
programmers	O
at	O
Google	O
company	O
DeepMind	B-Application
released	O
a	O
brand	O
new	O
engine	O
,	O
AlphaZero	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
At	O
the	O
end	O
of	O
2017	O
engineers	O
at	O
DeepMind	B-Application
released	O
an	O
engine	O
that	O
would	O
shock	O
the	O
chess	B-Application
computing	O
world	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
AlphaZero	B-Application
was	O
fundamentally	O
based	O
on	O
a	O
different	O
approach	O
to	O
chess	B-Application
computing	O
,	O
something	O
that	O
had	O
never	O
really	O
been	O
seen	O
before	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
previous	O
engines	O
had	O
relied	O
on	O
searching	O
through	O
trees	O
and	O
evaluating	O
positions	O
,	O
AlphaZero	B-Application
relied	O
on	O
a	O
deep	O
neural	B-Architecture
network	I-Architecture
for	O
its	O
analysis	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
essentially	O
meant	O
AlphaZero	B-Application
could	O
learn	O
chess	B-Application
by	O
itself	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
initial	O
tests	O
with	O
AlphaZero	B-Application
were	O
staggering	O
;	O
in	O
a	O
100	O
game	O
match	O
against	O
the	O
current	O
strongest	O
engine	O
Stockfish	B-Application
,	O
AlphaZero	B-Application
won	O
28	O
games	O
and	O
tied	O
the	O
remaining	O
72	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
many	O
ways	O
AlphaZero	B-Application
served	O
not	O
only	O
as	O
a	O
breakthrough	O
for	O
chess	B-Application
computing	O
,	O
but	O
for	O
the	O
AI	O
world	O
in	O
general	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
2017	O
,	O
the	O
presence	O
of	O
neural	B-Architecture
networks	I-Architecture
the	O
in	O
the	O
worlds	O
top	O
chess	B-Application
engines	I-Application
has	O
only	O
grown	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
All	O
top	O
engines	O
nowadays	O
,	O
Leela	B-Application
Chess	I-Application
Zero	I-Application
,	O
Stockfish	B-Application
,	O
and	O
Komodo	B-Application
have	O
all	O
included	O
neural	B-Architecture
networks	I-Architecture
in	O
their	O
engines	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Yet	O
the	O
deep	B-Algorithm
reinforcement	I-Algorithm
learning	I-Algorithm
used	O
for	O
AlphaZero	B-Application
remains	O
uncommon	O
in	O
top	O
engines	O
.	O
</s>
