<s>
High-performance	B-Architecture
computing	I-Architecture
(	O
HPC	O
)	O
uses	O
supercomputers	B-Architecture
and	O
computer	B-Architecture
clusters	I-Architecture
to	O
solve	O
advanced	O
computation	O
problems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
HPC	O
integrates	O
systems	B-Application
administration	I-Application
(	O
including	O
network	O
and	O
security	O
knowledge	O
)	O
and	O
parallel	B-Operating_System
programming	I-Operating_System
into	O
a	O
multidisciplinary	O
field	O
that	O
combines	O
digital	O
electronics	O
,	O
computer	B-General_Concept
architecture	I-General_Concept
,	O
system	B-Application
software	I-Application
,	O
programming	O
languages	O
,	O
algorithms	O
and	O
computational	O
techniques	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
HPC	O
technologies	O
are	O
the	O
tools	O
and	O
systems	O
used	O
to	O
implement	O
and	O
create	O
high	B-Architecture
performance	I-Architecture
computing	I-Architecture
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Recently	O
,	O
HPC	O
systems	O
have	O
shifted	O
from	O
supercomputing	B-Architecture
to	O
computing	B-Architecture
clusters	I-Architecture
and	O
grids	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Because	O
of	O
the	O
need	O
of	O
networking	O
in	O
clusters	O
and	O
grids	O
,	O
High	B-Architecture
Performance	I-Architecture
Computing	I-Architecture
Technologies	O
are	O
being	O
promoted	O
by	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
a	O
collapsed	B-General_Concept
network	I-General_Concept
backbone	I-General_Concept
,	O
because	O
the	O
collapsed	B-General_Concept
backbone	I-General_Concept
architecture	O
is	O
simple	O
to	O
troubleshoot	O
and	O
upgrades	O
can	O
be	O
applied	O
to	O
a	O
single	O
router	O
as	O
opposed	O
to	O
multiple	O
ones	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
related	O
term	O
,	O
high-performance	B-Operating_System
technical	I-Operating_System
computing	I-Operating_System
(	O
HPTC	B-Operating_System
)	O
,	O
generally	O
refers	O
to	O
the	O
engineering	O
applications	O
of	O
cluster-based	O
computing	O
(	O
such	O
as	O
computational	O
fluid	O
dynamics	O
and	O
the	O
building	O
and	O
testing	O
of	O
virtual	O
prototypes	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
HPC	O
has	O
also	O
been	O
applied	O
to	O
business	O
uses	O
such	O
as	O
data	O
warehouses	O
,	O
line-of-business	O
(	O
LOB	O
)	O
applications	O
,	O
and	O
transaction	B-General_Concept
processing	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
High-performance	B-Architecture
computing	I-Architecture
(	O
HPC	O
)	O
as	O
a	O
term	O
arose	O
after	O
the	O
term	O
"	O
supercomputing	B-Architecture
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
HPC	O
is	O
sometimes	O
used	O
as	O
a	O
synonym	O
for	O
supercomputing	B-Architecture
;	O
but	O
,	O
in	O
other	O
contexts	O
,	O
"	O
supercomputer	B-Architecture
"	O
is	O
used	O
to	O
refer	O
to	O
a	O
more	O
powerful	O
subset	O
of	O
"	O
high-performance	B-Architecture
computers	I-Architecture
"	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
term	O
"	O
supercomputing	B-Architecture
"	O
becomes	O
a	O
subset	O
of	O
"	O
high-performance	B-Architecture
computing	I-Architecture
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
networking	O
clusters	O
and	O
grids	O
use	O
multiple	B-Operating_System
processors	I-Operating_System
and	O
computers	O
,	O
these	O
scaling	O
problems	O
can	O
cripple	O
critical	O
systems	O
in	O
future	O
supercomputing	B-Architecture
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Therefore	O
,	O
either	O
the	O
existing	O
tools	O
do	O
not	O
address	O
the	O
needs	O
of	O
the	O
high	B-Architecture
performance	I-Architecture
computing	I-Architecture
community	O
or	O
the	O
HPC	O
community	O
is	O
unaware	O
of	O
these	O
tools	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
world	O
's	O
tenth	O
most	O
powerful	O
supercomputer	B-Architecture
in	O
2008	O
,	O
IBM	B-General_Concept
Roadrunner	I-General_Concept
(	O
located	O
at	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
Department	O
of	O
Energy	O
's	O
Los	O
Alamos	O
National	O
Laboratory	O
)	O
simulated	O
the	O
performance	O
,	O
safety	O
,	O
and	O
reliability	O
of	O
nuclear	O
weapons	O
and	O
certifies	O
their	O
functionality	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
list	O
of	O
the	O
most	O
powerful	O
high-performance	B-Architecture
computers	I-Architecture
can	O
be	O
found	O
on	O
the	O
TOP500	B-Operating_System
list	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
TOP500	B-Operating_System
list	O
ranks	O
the	O
world	O
's	O
500	O
fastest	O
high-performance	B-Architecture
computers	I-Architecture
,	O
as	O
measured	O
by	O
the	O
High	O
Performance	O
LINPACK	O
(	O
HPL	O
)	O
benchmark	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
addition	O
,	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
the	O
single	O
LINPACK	O
benchmark	O
is	O
controversial	O
,	O
in	O
that	O
no	O
single	O
measure	O
can	O
test	O
all	O
aspects	O
of	O
a	O
high-performance	B-Architecture
computer	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
evolving	O
suite	O
has	O
been	O
used	O
in	O
some	O
HPC	O
procurements	O
,	O
but	O
,	O
because	O
it	O
is	O
not	O
reducible	O
to	O
a	O
single	O
number	O
,	O
it	O
has	O
been	O
unable	O
to	O
overcome	O
the	O
publicity	O
advantage	O
of	O
the	O
less	O
useful	O
TOP500	B-Operating_System
LINPACK	O
test	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
TOP500	B-Operating_System
list	O
is	O
updated	O
twice	O
a	O
year	O
,	O
once	O
in	O
June	O
at	O
the	O
ISC	O
European	O
Supercomputing	B-Architecture
Conference	O
and	O
again	O
at	O
a	O
US	O
Supercomputing	B-Architecture
Conference	O
in	O
November	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
ideas	O
for	O
the	O
new	O
wave	O
of	O
grid	B-Architecture
computing	I-Architecture
were	O
originally	O
borrowed	O
from	O
HPC	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Traditionally	O
,	O
HPC	O
has	O
involved	O
an	O
on-premises	O
infrastructure	O
,	O
investing	O
in	O
supercomputers	B-Architecture
or	O
computer	B-Architecture
clusters	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Over	O
the	O
last	O
decade	O
,	O
cloud	B-Architecture
computing	I-Architecture
has	O
grown	O
in	O
popularity	O
for	O
offering	O
computer	O
resources	O
in	O
the	O
commercial	O
sector	O
regardless	O
of	O
their	O
investment	O
capabilities	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
characteristics	O
like	O
scalability	O
,	O
and	O
containerization	B-Application
also	O
have	O
raised	O
interest	O
in	O
academia	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
security	B-General_Concept
in	I-General_Concept
the	I-General_Concept
cloud	I-General_Concept
concerns	O
such	O
as	O
data	O
confidentiality	O
are	O
still	O
considered	O
when	O
selecting	O
a	O
cloud	O
or	O
on-premise	O
HPC	O
.	O
</s>
