<s>
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
is	O
a	O
security	O
bug	O
in	O
some	O
outdated	O
versions	O
of	O
the	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
cryptography	O
library	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
a	O
widely	O
used	O
implementation	O
of	O
the	O
Transport	B-Protocol
Layer	I-Protocol
Security	I-Protocol
(	O
TLS	O
)	O
protocol	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
could	O
be	O
exploited	O
regardless	O
of	O
whether	O
the	O
vulnerable	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
instance	O
is	O
running	O
as	O
a	O
TLS	O
server	O
or	O
client	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
resulted	O
from	O
improper	O
input	O
validation	O
(	O
due	O
to	O
a	O
missing	O
bounds	B-Data_Structure
check	I-Data_Structure
)	O
in	O
the	O
implementation	O
of	O
the	O
TLS	O
heartbeat	B-Operating_System
extension	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Thus	O
,	O
the	O
bug	O
's	O
name	O
derived	O
from	O
heartbeat	B-Operating_System
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
vulnerability	O
was	O
classified	O
as	O
a	O
buffer	B-General_Concept
over-read	I-General_Concept
,	O
a	O
situation	O
where	O
more	O
data	O
can	O
be	O
read	O
than	O
should	O
be	O
allowed	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
was	O
registered	O
in	O
the	O
Common	O
Vulnerabilities	O
and	O
Exposures	O
database	O
as	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
fixed	O
version	O
of	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
was	O
released	O
on	O
7	O
April	O
2014	O
,	O
on	O
the	O
same	O
day	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
was	O
publicly	O
disclosed	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
,	O
1.5	O
%	O
of	O
the	O
800,000	O
most	O
popular	O
TLS-enabled	O
websites	O
were	O
still	O
vulnerable	O
to	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
.	O
</s>
<s>
,	O
the	O
number	O
had	O
dropped	O
to	O
144	O
,	O
000	O
,	O
according	O
to	O
a	O
search	O
on	O
shodan.io	O
for	O
"	O
vuln:cve-2014-0160	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
report	O
also	O
broke	O
the	O
devices	O
down	O
by	O
10	O
other	O
categories	O
such	O
as	O
organization	O
(	O
the	O
top	O
3	O
were	O
wireless	O
companies	O
)	O
,	O
product	O
(	O
Apache	B-Application
httpd	I-Application
,	O
Nginx	B-Operating_System
)	O
,	O
or	O
service	O
(	O
HTTPS	B-Protocol
,	O
81%	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
TLS	O
implementations	O
other	O
than	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
,	O
such	O
as	O
GnuTLS	B-Application
,	O
Mozilla	B-Operating_System
's	O
Network	B-Protocol
Security	I-Protocol
Services	I-Protocol
,	O
and	O
the	O
Windows	B-Protocol
platform	I-Protocol
implementation	I-Protocol
of	I-Protocol
TLS	I-Protocol
,	O
were	O
not	O
affected	O
because	O
the	O
defect	O
existed	O
in	O
the	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
's	O
implementation	O
of	O
TLS	O
rather	O
than	O
in	O
the	O
protocol	O
itself	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Heartbeat	B-Operating_System
Extension	O
for	O
the	O
Transport	B-Protocol
Layer	I-Protocol
Security	I-Protocol
(	O
TLS	O
)	O
and	O
Datagram	B-Protocol
Transport	I-Protocol
Layer	I-Protocol
Security	I-Protocol
(	O
DTLS	B-Protocol
)	O
protocols	O
was	O
proposed	O
as	O
a	O
standard	O
in	O
February	O
2012	O
by	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2011	O
,	O
one	O
of	O
the	O
RFC	O
's	O
authors	O
,	O
Robin	O
Seggelmann	O
,	O
then	O
a	O
Ph.D.	O
student	O
at	O
the	O
Fachhochschule	O
Münster	O
,	O
implemented	O
the	O
Heartbeat	B-Operating_System
Extension	O
for	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Following	O
Seggelmann	O
's	O
request	O
to	O
put	O
the	O
result	O
of	O
his	O
work	O
into	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
,	O
his	O
change	O
was	O
reviewed	O
by	O
Stephen	O
N	O
.	O
Henson	O
,	O
one	O
of	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
's	O
four	O
core	O
developers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Henson	O
failed	O
to	O
notice	O
a	O
bug	O
in	O
Seggelmann	O
's	O
implementation	O
,	O
and	O
introduced	O
the	O
flawed	O
code	O
into	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
's	O
source	O
code	O
repository	O
on	O
31	O
December	O
2011	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
defect	O
spread	O
with	O
the	O
release	O
of	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
version	O
1.0.1	O
on	O
14	O
March	O
2012	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Heartbeat	B-Operating_System
support	O
was	O
enabled	O
by	O
default	O
,	O
causing	O
affected	O
versions	O
to	O
be	O
vulnerable	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
According	O
to	O
Mark	O
J	O
.	O
Cox	O
of	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
,	O
Neel	O
Mehta	O
of	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
security	O
team	O
privately	O
reported	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
to	O
the	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
team	O
on	O
1	O
April	O
2014	O
11:09	O
UTC	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
security	O
team	O
reported	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
to	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
first	O
,	O
both	O
Google	B-Application
and	O
Codenomicon	O
discovered	O
it	O
independently	O
at	O
approximately	O
the	O
same	O
time	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
At	O
the	O
time	O
of	O
disclosure	O
,	O
some	O
17%	O
(	O
around	O
half	O
a	O
million	O
)	O
of	O
the	O
Internet	O
's	O
secure	O
web	O
servers	O
certified	O
by	O
trusted	B-Architecture
authorities	I-Architecture
were	O
believed	O
to	O
be	O
vulnerable	O
to	O
the	O
attack	O
,	O
allowing	O
theft	O
of	O
the	O
servers	O
 '	O
private	B-Application
keys	I-Application
and	O
users	O
 '	O
session	O
cookies	O
and	O
passwords	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Electronic	O
Frontier	O
Foundation	O
,	O
Ars	O
Technica	O
,	O
and	O
Bruce	O
Schneier	O
all	O
deemed	O
the	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
bug	I-Error_Name
"	O
catastrophic	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
British	O
Cabinet	O
spokesman	O
recommended	O
that	O
:	O
On	O
the	O
day	O
of	O
disclosure	O
,	O
The	O
Tor	B-Application
Project	I-Application
advised	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
Bodo	O
Möller	O
and	O
Adam	O
Langley	O
of	O
Google	B-Application
prepared	O
the	O
fix	O
for	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
.	O
</s>
<s>
Stephen	O
N	O
.	O
Henson	O
applied	O
the	O
fix	O
to	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
's	O
version	O
control	O
system	O
on	O
7	O
April	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
number	O
had	O
dropped	O
to	O
144,000	O
,	O
according	O
to	O
a	O
search	O
on	O
shodan.io	O
for	O
"	O
vuln:cve-2014-0160	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
According	O
to	O
Netcraft	O
,	O
about	O
30,000	O
of	O
the	O
500,000	O
+	O
X.509	O
certificates	O
which	O
could	O
have	O
been	O
compromised	O
due	O
to	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
had	O
been	O
reissued	O
by	O
11	O
April	O
2014	O
,	O
although	O
fewer	O
had	O
been	O
revoked	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
eWeek	O
said	O
,	O
"	O
[	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
is ]	O
likely	O
to	O
remain	O
a	O
risk	O
for	O
months	O
,	O
if	O
not	O
years	O
,	O
to	O
come.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
site	O
later	O
published	O
an	O
explanation	O
of	O
the	O
incident	O
saying	O
it	O
was	O
due	O
to	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
and	O
the	O
technical	O
staff	O
patched	O
it	O
promptly	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Anti-malware	O
researchers	O
also	O
exploited	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
to	O
their	O
own	O
advantage	O
in	O
order	O
to	O
access	O
secret	O
forums	O
used	O
by	O
cybercriminals	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
on	O
12	O
April	O
2014	O
,	O
at	O
least	O
two	O
independent	O
researchers	O
were	O
able	O
to	O
steal	O
private	B-Application
keys	I-Application
from	O
an	O
experimental	O
server	O
intentionally	O
set	O
up	O
for	O
that	O
purpose	O
by	O
CloudFlare	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
August	O
2014	O
,	O
it	O
was	O
made	O
public	O
that	O
the	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
vulnerability	I-Error_Name
enabled	O
hackers	O
to	O
steal	O
security	O
keys	O
from	O
Community	O
Health	O
Systems	O
,	O
the	O
second-biggest	O
for-profit	O
U.S.	O
hospital	O
chain	O
in	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
,	O
compromising	O
the	O
confidentiality	O
of	O
4.5	O
million	O
patient	O
records	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
breach	O
happened	O
a	O
week	O
after	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
was	O
first	O
made	O
public	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
major	O
web	O
sites	O
patched	O
the	O
bug	O
or	O
disabled	O
the	O
Heartbeat	B-Operating_System
Extension	O
within	O
days	O
of	O
its	O
announcement	O
,	O
but	O
it	O
is	O
unclear	O
whether	O
potential	O
attackers	O
were	O
aware	O
of	O
it	O
earlier	O
and	O
to	O
what	O
extent	O
it	O
was	O
exploited	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Errata	O
Security	O
pointed	O
out	O
that	O
a	O
widely	O
used	O
non-malicious	O
program	O
called	O
Masscan	O
,	O
introduced	O
six	O
months	O
before	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
's	O
disclosure	O
,	O
abruptly	O
terminates	O
the	O
connection	O
in	O
the	O
middle	O
of	O
handshaking	O
in	O
the	O
same	O
way	O
as	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
,	O
generating	O
the	O
same	O
server	O
log	O
messages	O
,	O
adding	O
"	O
Two	O
new	O
things	O
producing	O
the	O
same	O
error	O
messages	O
might	O
seem	O
like	O
the	O
two	O
are	O
correlated	O
,	O
but	O
of	O
course	O
,	O
they	O
are	O
n't	O
.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
NSA	O
has	O
denied	O
this	O
claim	O
,	O
as	O
has	O
Richard	O
A	O
.	O
Clarke	O
,	O
a	O
member	O
of	O
the	O
National	O
Intelligence	O
Review	O
Group	O
on	O
Intelligence	O
and	O
Communications	O
Technologies	O
that	O
reviewed	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
 '	O
electronic	O
surveillance	O
policy	O
;	O
he	O
told	O
Reuters	O
on	O
11	O
April	O
2014	O
that	O
the	O
NSA	O
had	O
not	O
known	O
of	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
RFC	O
6520	O
Heartbeat	B-Operating_System
Extension	O
tests	O
TLS/DTLS	O
secure	O
communication	O
links	O
by	O
allowing	O
a	O
computer	O
at	O
one	O
end	O
of	O
a	O
connection	O
to	O
send	O
a	O
Heartbeat	B-Operating_System
Request	O
message	O
,	O
consisting	O
of	O
a	O
payload	O
,	O
typically	O
a	O
text	O
string	O
,	O
along	O
with	O
the	O
payload	O
's	O
length	O
as	O
a	O
16-bit	B-Device
integer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
affected	O
versions	O
of	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
allocate	O
a	O
memory	B-General_Concept
buffer	I-General_Concept
for	O
the	O
message	O
to	O
be	O
returned	O
based	O
on	O
the	O
length	O
field	O
in	O
the	O
requesting	O
message	O
,	O
without	O
regard	O
to	O
the	O
actual	O
size	O
of	O
that	O
message	O
's	O
payload	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Because	O
of	O
this	O
failure	O
to	O
do	O
proper	O
bounds	B-Data_Structure
checking	I-Data_Structure
,	O
the	O
message	O
returned	O
consists	O
of	O
the	O
payload	O
,	O
possibly	O
followed	O
by	O
whatever	O
else	O
happened	O
to	O
be	O
in	O
the	O
allocated	O
memory	B-General_Concept
buffer	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
is	O
therefore	O
exploited	O
by	O
sending	O
a	O
malformed	O
heartbeat	B-Operating_System
request	O
with	O
a	O
small	O
payload	O
and	O
large	O
length	O
field	O
to	O
the	O
vulnerable	O
party	O
(	O
usually	O
a	O
server	O
)	O
in	O
order	O
to	O
elicit	O
the	O
victim	O
's	O
response	O
,	O
permitting	O
attackers	O
to	O
read	O
up	O
to	O
64	O
kilobytes	O
of	O
the	O
victim	O
's	O
memory	O
that	O
was	O
likely	O
to	O
have	O
been	O
used	O
previously	O
by	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Where	O
a	O
Heartbeat	B-Operating_System
Request	O
might	O
ask	O
a	O
party	O
to	O
"	O
send	O
back	O
the	O
four-letter	O
word	O
'	O
bird	O
 '	O
"	O
,	O
resulting	O
in	O
a	O
response	O
of	O
"	O
bird	O
"	O
,	O
a	O
"	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
Request	O
"	O
(	O
a	O
malicious	O
heartbeat	B-Operating_System
request	O
)	O
of	O
"	O
send	O
back	O
the	O
500-letter	O
word	O
'	O
bird	O
 '	O
"	O
would	O
cause	O
the	O
victim	O
to	O
return	O
"	O
bird	O
"	O
followed	O
by	O
whatever	O
496	O
subsequent	O
characters	O
the	O
victim	O
happened	O
to	O
have	O
in	O
active	O
memory	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
affected	O
versions	O
of	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
are	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
1.0.1	O
through	O
1.0.1f	O
(	O
inclusive	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Installations	O
of	O
the	O
affected	O
versions	O
are	O
vulnerable	O
unless	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
was	O
compiled	O
with	O
-DOPENSSL_NO_HEARTBEATS	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
vulnerable	O
program	O
source	O
files	O
are	O
t1_lib.c	O
and	O
d1_both.c	O
and	O
the	O
vulnerable	O
functions	O
are	O
tls1_process_heartbeat( )	O
and	O
dtls1_process_heartbeat( )	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
problem	O
can	O
be	O
fixed	O
by	O
ignoring	O
Heartbeat	B-Operating_System
Request	O
messages	O
that	O
ask	O
for	O
more	O
data	O
than	O
their	O
payload	O
need	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Version	O
1.0.1g	O
of	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
adds	O
some	O
bounds	B-Data_Structure
checks	I-Data_Structure
to	O
prevent	O
the	O
buffer	B-General_Concept
over-read	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
the	O
following	O
test	O
was	O
introduced	O
to	O
determine	O
whether	O
a	O
heartbeat	B-Operating_System
request	O
would	O
trigger	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
;	O
it	O
silently	O
discards	O
malicious	O
requests	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
version	O
control	O
system	O
contains	O
a	O
complete	O
list	O
of	O
changes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
data	O
obtained	O
by	O
a	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
attack	O
may	O
include	O
unencrypted	O
exchanges	O
between	O
TLS	O
parties	O
likely	O
to	O
be	O
confidential	O
,	O
including	O
any	O
form	O
post	B-Protocol
data	I-Protocol
in	O
users	O
 '	O
requests	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
attack	O
may	O
also	O
reveal	O
private	B-Application
keys	I-Application
of	O
compromised	O
parties	O
,	O
which	O
would	O
enable	O
attackers	O
to	O
decrypt	O
communications	O
(	O
future	O
or	O
past	O
stored	O
traffic	O
captured	O
via	O
passive	O
eavesdropping	O
,	O
unless	O
perfect	O
forward	O
secrecy	O
is	O
used	O
,	O
in	O
which	O
case	O
only	O
future	O
traffic	O
can	O
be	O
decrypted	O
if	O
intercepted	O
via	O
man-in-the-middle	O
attacks	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
attacker	O
having	O
gained	O
authentication	O
material	O
may	O
impersonate	O
the	O
material	O
's	O
owner	O
after	O
the	O
victim	O
has	O
patched	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
,	O
as	O
long	O
as	O
the	O
material	O
is	O
accepted	O
(	O
for	O
example	O
,	O
until	O
the	O
password	O
is	O
changed	O
or	O
the	O
private	B-Application
key	I-Application
revoked	B-Protocol
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
therefore	O
constitutes	O
a	O
critical	O
threat	O
to	O
confidentiality	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Indirectly	O
,	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
's	O
consequences	O
may	O
thus	O
go	O
far	O
beyond	O
a	O
confidentiality	O
breach	O
for	O
many	O
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
survey	O
of	O
American	O
adults	O
conducted	O
in	O
April	O
2014	O
showed	O
that	O
60	O
percent	O
had	O
heard	O
about	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
.	O
</s>
<s>
Among	O
those	O
using	O
the	O
Internet	O
,	O
39	O
percent	O
had	O
protected	O
their	O
online	O
accounts	O
,	O
for	O
example	O
by	O
changing	O
passwords	O
or	O
canceling	O
accounts	O
;	O
29	O
percent	O
believed	O
their	O
personal	O
information	O
was	O
put	O
at	O
risk	O
because	O
of	O
the	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
bug	I-Error_Name
;	O
and	O
6	O
percent	O
believed	O
their	O
personal	O
information	O
had	O
been	O
stolen	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Although	O
the	O
bug	O
received	O
more	O
attention	O
due	O
to	O
the	O
threat	O
it	O
represents	O
for	O
servers	O
,	O
TLS	O
clients	O
using	O
affected	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
instances	O
are	O
also	O
vulnerable	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
what	O
The	O
Guardian	O
therefore	O
dubbed	O
Reverse	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
,	O
malicious	O
servers	O
are	O
able	O
to	O
exploit	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
to	O
read	O
data	O
from	O
a	O
vulnerable	O
client	O
's	O
memory	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Security	O
researcher	O
Steve	O
Gibson	O
said	O
of	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
that	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
Reverse	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
affected	O
millions	O
of	O
application	O
instances	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
analysis	O
posted	O
on	O
GitHub	B-Application
of	O
the	O
most	O
visited	O
websites	O
on	O
8	O
April	O
2014	O
revealed	O
vulnerabilities	O
in	O
sites	O
including	O
Yahoo	O
!,	O
Imgur	B-Algorithm
,	O
Stack	B-Application
Overflow	I-Application
,	O
Slate	O
,	O
and	O
DuckDuckGo	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Canadian	O
federal	O
government	O
temporarily	O
shut	O
online	O
services	O
of	O
the	O
Canada	O
Revenue	O
Agency	O
(	O
CRA	O
)	O
and	O
several	O
government	O
departments	O
over	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
bug	I-Error_Name
security	O
concerns	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
servers	O
of	O
LastPass	B-Operating_System
were	O
vulnerable	O
,	O
but	O
due	O
to	O
additional	O
encryption	O
and	O
forward	O
secrecy	O
,	O
potential	O
attacks	O
were	O
not	O
able	O
to	O
exploit	O
this	O
bug	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
LastPass	B-Operating_System
recommended	O
that	O
its	O
users	O
change	O
passwords	O
for	O
vulnerable	O
websites	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Tor	B-Application
Project	I-Application
recommended	O
that	O
Tor	B-Application
relay	O
operators	O
and	O
hidden	O
service	O
operators	O
revoke	O
and	O
generate	O
fresh	O
keys	O
after	O
patching	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
,	O
but	O
noted	O
that	O
Tor	B-Application
relays	O
use	O
two	O
sets	O
of	O
keys	O
and	O
that	O
Tor	B-Application
's	O
multi-hop	O
design	O
minimizes	O
the	O
impact	O
of	O
exploiting	O
a	O
single	O
relay	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
586	O
relays	O
later	O
found	O
to	O
be	O
susceptible	O
to	O
the	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
bug	I-Error_Name
were	O
taken	O
off-line	O
as	O
a	O
precautionary	O
measure	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Game-related	O
services	O
including	O
Steam	B-Application
,	O
Minecraft	B-Application
,	O
Wargaming	O
,	O
League	B-Application
of	I-Application
Legends	I-Application
,	O
GOG.com,	O
Origin	B-Operating_System
,	O
Sony	O
Online	O
Entertainment	O
,	O
Humble	O
Bundle	O
,	O
and	O
Path	B-Application
of	I-Application
Exile	I-Application
were	O
affected	O
and	O
subsequently	O
fixed	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
LogMeIn	B-Application
claimed	O
to	O
have	O
"	O
updated	O
many	O
products	O
and	O
parts	O
of	O
our	O
services	O
that	O
rely	O
on	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Several	O
other	O
Oracle	B-Application
Corporation	I-Application
applications	O
were	O
affected	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Several	O
Linux	O
distributions	O
were	O
affected	O
,	O
including	O
Debian	O
(	O
and	O
derivatives	O
such	O
as	O
Linux	B-Application
Mint	I-Application
and	O
Ubuntu	B-Operating_System
)	O
and	O
Red	O
Hat	O
Enterprise	O
Linux	O
(	O
and	O
derivatives	O
such	O
as	O
CentOS	O
,	O
Oracle	B-Application
Linux	O
6	O
and	O
Amazon	O
Linux	O
)	O
,	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
the	O
following	O
operating	O
systems	O
and	O
firmware	O
implementations	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
Android	B-Application
4.1.1	O
,	O
used	O
in	O
various	O
portable	O
devices	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Chris	O
Smith	O
writes	O
in	O
Boy	O
Genius	O
Report	O
that	O
just	O
this	O
one	O
version	O
of	O
Android	B-Application
is	O
affected	O
but	O
that	O
it	O
is	O
a	O
popular	O
version	O
of	O
Android	B-Application
(	O
Chitika	O
claim	O
4.1.1	O
is	O
on	O
50	O
million	O
devices	O
;	O
Google	B-Application
describe	O
it	O
as	O
less	O
than	O
10%	O
of	O
activated	O
Android	B-Application
devices	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Other	O
Android	B-Application
versions	O
are	O
not	O
vulnerable	O
as	O
they	O
either	O
have	O
heartbeats	B-Operating_System
disabled	O
or	O
use	O
an	O
unaffected	O
version	O
of	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Several	O
services	O
have	O
been	O
made	O
available	O
to	O
test	O
whether	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
affects	O
a	O
given	O
site	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Qualys	O
SSL	O
Labs	O
 '	O
SSL	O
Server	O
Test	O
which	O
not	O
only	O
looks	O
for	O
the	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
bug	I-Error_Name
,	O
but	O
can	O
also	O
find	O
other	O
SSL/TLS	B-Protocol
implementation	O
errors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
CrowdStrike	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
Scanner	O
–	O
Scans	O
routers	O
,	O
printers	O
and	O
other	O
devices	O
connected	O
inside	O
a	O
network	O
including	O
intranet	O
web	O
sites	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Netcraft	O
Site	O
Report	O
–	O
indicates	O
whether	O
a	O
website	O
's	O
confidentiality	O
could	O
be	O
jeopardized	O
due	O
to	O
a	O
past	O
exploitation	O
of	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
by	O
checking	O
data	O
from	O
Netcraft	O
's	O
SSL	O
Survey	O
to	O
determine	O
whether	O
a	O
site	O
offered	O
the	O
heartbeat	B-Operating_System
TLS	O
Extension	O
prior	O
to	O
the	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
disclosure	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
Tenable	O
Network	O
Security	O
wrote	O
a	O
plugin	O
for	O
its	O
Nessus	B-Protocol
vulnerability	O
scanner	O
that	O
can	O
scan	O
for	O
this	O
fault	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Nmap	B-Language
security	O
scanner	O
includes	O
a	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
detection	O
script	O
from	O
version	O
6.45	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Sourcefire	O
has	O
released	O
Snort	B-Language
rules	O
to	O
detect	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
attack	O
traffic	O
and	O
possible	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
response	O
traffic	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Open	O
source	O
packet	O
analysis	O
software	O
such	O
as	O
Wireshark	B-Language
and	O
tcpdump	B-Protocol
can	O
identify	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
packets	O
using	O
specific	O
BPF	O
packet	O
filters	O
that	O
can	O
be	O
used	O
on	O
stored	O
packet	O
captures	O
or	O
live	O
traffic	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Vulnerability	O
to	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
is	O
resolved	O
by	O
updating	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
to	O
a	O
patched	O
version	O
(	O
1.0.1g	O
or	O
later	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
OpenSSL	B-Language
can	O
be	O
used	O
either	O
as	O
a	O
standalone	O
program	O
,	O
a	O
dynamic	O
shared	O
object	O
,	O
or	O
a	O
statically-linked	B-Library
library	I-Library
;	O
therefore	O
,	O
the	O
updating	O
process	O
can	O
require	O
restarting	O
processes	O
loaded	O
with	O
a	O
vulnerable	O
version	O
of	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
as	O
well	O
as	O
re-linking	O
programs	O
and	O
libraries	O
that	O
linked	O
it	O
statically	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
practice	O
this	O
means	O
updating	O
packages	O
that	O
link	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
statically	O
,	O
and	O
restarting	O
running	O
programs	O
to	O
remove	O
the	O
in-memory	O
copy	O
of	O
the	O
old	O
,	O
vulnerable	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
code	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Because	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
allowed	O
attackers	O
to	O
disclose	O
private	B-Application
keys	I-Application
,	O
they	O
must	O
be	O
treated	O
as	O
compromised	O
;	O
key	B-Application
pairs	I-Application
must	O
be	O
regenerated	O
,	O
and	O
certificates	O
that	O
use	O
them	O
must	O
be	O
reissued	O
;	O
the	O
old	O
certificates	O
must	O
be	O
revoked	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
also	O
had	O
the	O
potential	O
to	O
allow	O
disclosure	O
of	O
other	O
in-memory	O
secrets	O
;	O
therefore	O
,	O
other	O
authentication	O
material	O
(	O
such	O
as	O
passwords	O
)	O
should	O
also	O
be	O
regenerated	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
signatures	O
made	O
by	O
keys	O
that	O
were	O
in	O
use	O
with	O
a	O
vulnerable	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
version	O
might	O
well	O
have	O
been	O
made	O
by	O
an	O
attacker	O
;	O
this	O
raises	O
the	O
possibility	O
integrity	O
has	O
been	O
violated	O
,	O
and	O
opens	O
signatures	O
to	O
repudiation	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
threatened	O
the	O
privacy	O
of	O
private	B-Application
keys	I-Application
,	O
users	O
of	O
a	O
website	O
which	O
was	O
compromised	O
could	O
continue	O
to	O
suffer	O
from	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
's	O
effects	O
until	O
their	O
browser	O
is	O
made	O
aware	O
of	O
the	O
certificate	B-Protocol
revocation	I-Protocol
or	O
the	O
compromised	O
certificate	O
expires	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
this	O
reason	O
,	O
remediation	O
also	O
depends	O
on	O
users	O
making	O
use	O
of	O
browsers	O
that	O
have	O
up-to-date	O
certificate	B-Protocol
revocation	I-Protocol
lists	I-Protocol
(	O
or	O
OCSP	B-Protocol
support	O
)	O
and	O
honour	O
certificate	B-Protocol
revocations	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
Although	O
evaluating	O
the	O
total	O
cost	O
of	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
is	O
difficult	O
,	O
eWEEK	O
estimated	O
US$500	O
million	O
as	O
a	O
starting	O
point	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
David	O
A	O
.	O
Wheeler	O
's	O
paper	O
How	O
to	O
Prevent	O
the	O
next	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
analyzes	O
why	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
was	O
n't	O
discovered	O
earlier	O
,	O
and	O
suggests	O
several	O
techniques	O
which	O
could	O
have	O
led	O
to	O
a	O
faster	O
identification	O
,	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
techniques	O
which	O
could	O
have	O
reduced	O
its	O
impact	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
According	O
to	O
Wheeler	O
,	O
the	O
most	O
efficient	O
technique	O
which	O
could	O
have	O
prevented	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
is	O
a	O
test	O
suite	O
thoroughly	O
performing	O
robustness	B-General_Concept
testing	I-General_Concept
,	O
i.e.	O
</s>
<s>
According	O
to	O
an	O
article	O
on	O
The	O
Conversation	O
written	O
by	O
Robert	O
Merkel	O
,	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
revealed	O
a	O
massive	O
failure	O
of	O
risk	O
analysis	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Merkel	O
thinks	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
gives	O
more	O
importance	O
to	O
performance	O
than	O
to	O
security	O
,	O
which	O
no	O
longer	O
makes	O
sense	O
in	O
his	O
opinion	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
But	O
Merkel	O
considers	O
that	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
should	O
not	O
be	O
blamed	O
as	O
much	O
as	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
users	O
,	O
who	O
chose	O
to	O
use	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
,	O
without	O
funding	O
better	O
auditing	O
and	O
testing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Secondly	O
,	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
's	O
processes	O
affect	O
the	O
chances	O
of	O
catching	O
bugs	O
quickly	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
On	O
the	O
first	O
aspect	O
,	O
Merkel	O
mentions	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
the	O
C	B-Language
programming	I-Language
language	I-Language
as	O
one	O
risk	O
factor	O
which	O
favored	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
's	O
appearance	O
,	O
echoing	O
Wheeler	O
's	O
analysis	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
On	O
the	O
same	O
aspect	O
,	O
Theo	O
de	O
Raadt	O
,	O
founder	O
and	O
leader	O
of	O
the	O
OpenBSD	B-Operating_System
and	O
OpenSSH	B-Language
projects	O
,	O
has	O
criticized	O
the	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
developers	O
for	O
writing	O
their	O
own	O
memory	O
management	O
routines	O
and	O
thereby	O
,	O
he	O
claims	O
,	O
circumventing	O
OpenBSD	B-Operating_System
C	B-Language
standard	I-Language
library	I-Language
exploit	O
countermeasures	O
,	O
saying	O
"	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
is	O
not	O
developed	O
by	O
a	O
responsible	O
team.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
Following	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
's	O
disclosure	O
,	O
members	O
of	O
the	O
OpenBSD	B-Operating_System
project	I-Operating_System
forked	B-Application
OpenSSL	B-Language
into	O
LibreSSL	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
author	O
of	O
the	O
change	O
which	O
introduced	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
,	O
Robin	O
Seggelmann	O
,	O
stated	O
that	O
he	O
missed	O
validating	O
a	O
variable	O
containing	O
a	O
length	O
and	O
denied	O
any	O
intention	O
to	O
submit	O
a	O
flawed	O
implementation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Following	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
's	O
disclosure	O
,	O
Seggelmann	O
suggested	O
focusing	O
on	O
the	O
second	O
aspect	O
,	O
stating	O
that	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
is	O
not	O
reviewed	O
by	O
enough	O
people	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Although	O
Seggelmann	O
's	O
work	O
was	O
reviewed	O
by	O
an	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
core	O
developer	O
,	O
the	O
review	O
was	O
also	O
intended	O
to	O
verify	O
functional	O
improvements	O
,	O
a	O
situation	O
making	O
vulnerabilities	O
much	O
easier	O
to	O
miss	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
OpenSSL	B-Language
core	O
developer	O
Ben	O
Laurie	O
claimed	O
that	O
a	O
security	O
audit	O
of	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
would	O
have	O
caught	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
.	O
</s>
<s>
Software	O
engineer	O
John	O
Walsh	O
commented	O
:	O
The	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
foundation	O
's	O
president	O
,	O
Steve	O
Marquess	O
,	O
said	O
"	O
The	O
mystery	O
is	O
not	O
that	O
a	O
few	O
overworked	O
volunteers	O
missed	O
this	O
bug	O
;	O
the	O
mystery	O
is	O
why	O
it	O
has	O
n't	O
happened	O
more	O
often.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
David	O
A	O
.	O
Wheeler	O
described	O
audits	O
as	O
an	O
excellent	O
way	O
to	O
find	O
vulnerabilities	O
in	O
typical	O
cases	O
,	O
but	O
noted	O
that	O
"	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
uses	O
unnecessarily	O
complex	O
structures	O
,	O
which	O
makes	O
it	O
harder	O
to	O
both	O
humans	O
and	O
machines	O
to	O
review.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
LibreSSL	B-Language
made	O
a	O
big	O
code	O
cleanup	O
,	O
removing	O
more	O
than	O
90,000	O
lines	O
of	O
C	B-Language
code	O
just	O
in	O
its	O
first	O
week	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
According	O
to	O
security	O
researcher	O
Dan	O
Kaminsky	O
,	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
is	O
sign	O
of	O
an	O
economic	O
problem	O
which	O
needs	O
to	O
be	O
fixed	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
was	O
discovered	O
,	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
was	O
maintained	O
by	O
a	O
handful	O
of	O
volunteers	O
,	O
only	O
one	O
of	O
whom	O
worked	O
full-time	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Yearly	O
donations	O
to	O
the	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
project	O
were	O
about	O
US$	O
2,000	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
website	O
from	O
Codenomicon	O
advised	O
money	O
donations	O
to	O
the	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
project	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
After	O
learning	O
about	O
donations	O
for	O
the	O
2	O
or	O
3	O
days	O
following	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
's	O
disclosure	O
totaling	O
US$841	O
,	O
Kaminsky	O
commented	O
"	O
We	O
are	O
building	O
the	O
most	O
important	O
technologies	O
for	O
the	O
global	O
economy	O
on	O
shockingly	O
underfunded	O
infrastructure.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
Although	O
the	O
OpenSSL	B-Language
Software	O
Foundation	O
has	O
no	O
bug	O
bounty	O
program	O
,	O
the	O
Internet	O
Bug	O
Bounty	O
initiative	O
awarded	O
US$	O
15,000	O
to	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
Neel	O
Mehta	O
,	O
who	O
discovered	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
,	O
for	O
his	O
responsible	O
disclosure	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Paul	O
Chiusano	O
suggested	O
Heartbleed	B-Error_Name
may	O
have	O
resulted	O
from	O
failed	O
software	O
economics	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
industry	O
's	O
collective	O
response	O
to	O
the	O
crisis	O
was	O
the	O
Core	B-Application
Infrastructure	I-Application
Initiative	I-Application
,	O
a	O
multimillion-dollar	O
project	O
announced	O
by	O
the	B-Operating_System
Linux	I-Operating_System
Foundation	I-Operating_System
on	O
24	O
April	O
2014	O
to	O
provide	O
funds	O
to	O
critical	O
elements	O
of	O
the	O
global	O
information	O
infrastructure	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
OpenSSL	B-Language
is	O
a	O
candidate	O
to	O
become	O
the	O
first	O
recipient	O
of	O
the	O
initiative	O
's	O
funding	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
After	O
the	O
discovery	O
Google	B-Application
established	O
Project	B-Application
Zero	I-Application
which	O
is	O
tasked	O
with	O
finding	O
zero-day	O
vulnerabilities	O
to	O
help	O
secure	O
the	O
Web	O
and	O
society	O
.	O
</s>
