<s>
Specialized	O
computer	B-Architecture
hardware	I-Architecture
is	O
often	O
used	O
to	O
execute	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
(	O
AI	B-Application
)	O
programs	O
faster	O
,	O
and	O
with	O
less	O
energy	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
Lisp	B-Operating_System
machines	I-Operating_System
,	O
neuromorphic	O
engineering	O
,	O
event	B-Algorithm
cameras	I-Algorithm
,	O
and	O
physical	B-Algorithm
neural	I-Algorithm
networks	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lisp	B-Operating_System
machines	I-Operating_System
were	O
developed	O
in	O
the	O
late	O
1970s	O
and	O
early	O
1980s	O
to	O
make	O
AI	B-Application
programs	O
written	O
in	O
the	O
programming	O
language	O
Lisp	B-Language
run	O
faster	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Dataflow	B-General_Concept
architecture	I-General_Concept
processors	O
used	O
for	O
AI	B-Application
serve	O
various	O
purposes	O
,	O
with	O
varied	O
implementations	O
like	O
the	O
polymorphic	O
dataflow	O
Convolution	O
Engine	O
by	O
Kinara	O
(	O
formerly	O
Deep	O
Vision	O
)	O
,	O
structure-driven	O
dataflow	O
by	O
Hailo	O
,	O
and	O
dataflow	O
scheduling	O
by	O
Cerebras	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
the	O
2010s	O
,	O
advances	O
in	O
computer	B-Architecture
hardware	I-Architecture
have	O
led	O
to	O
more	O
efficient	O
methods	O
for	O
training	O
deep	O
neural	O
networks	O
that	O
contain	O
many	O
layers	O
of	O
non-linear	O
hidden	O
units	O
and	O
a	O
very	O
large	O
output	O
layer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
2019	O
,	O
graphics	B-Architecture
processing	I-Architecture
units	I-Architecture
(	O
GPUs	B-Architecture
)	O
,	O
often	O
with	O
AI-specific	O
enhancements	O
,	O
had	O
displaced	O
central	B-General_Concept
processing	I-General_Concept
unit	I-General_Concept
(	O
CPUs	O
)	O
as	O
the	O
dominant	O
means	O
to	O
train	O
large-scale	O
commercial	O
cloud	O
AI	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
OpenAI	O
estimated	O
the	O
hardware	B-Architecture
compute	O
used	O
in	O
the	O
largest	O
deep	O
learning	O
projects	O
from	O
AlexNet	O
(	O
2012	O
)	O
to	O
AlphaZero	O
(	O
2017	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
found	O
a	O
300,000	O
-fold	O
increase	O
in	O
the	O
amount	O
of	O
compute	O
needed	O
,	O
with	O
a	O
doubling-time	O
trend	O
of	O
3.4	O
months	O
.	O
</s>
