<s>
Collective	O
intelligence	O
(	O
CI	O
)	O
is	O
shared	O
or	O
group	B-General_Concept
intelligence	I-General_Concept
(	O
GI	O
)	O
that	O
emerges	O
from	O
the	O
collaboration	O
,	O
collective	O
efforts	O
,	O
and	O
competition	O
of	O
many	O
individuals	O
and	O
appears	O
in	O
consensus	O
decision	O
making	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
can	O
be	O
understood	O
as	O
an	O
emergent	O
property	O
from	O
the	O
synergies	B-Language
among	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
concept	O
is	O
used	O
in	O
sociology	O
,	O
business	O
,	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
and	O
mass	O
communications	O
:	O
it	O
also	O
appears	O
in	O
science	O
fiction	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
According	O
to	O
researchers	O
Pierre	O
Lévy	O
and	O
Derrick	O
de	O
Kerckhove	O
,	O
it	O
refers	O
to	O
capacity	O
of	O
networked	O
ICTs	B-General_Concept
(	O
Information	B-General_Concept
communication	I-General_Concept
technologies	I-General_Concept
)	O
to	O
enhance	O
the	O
collective	O
pool	O
of	O
social	O
knowledge	O
by	O
simultaneously	O
expanding	O
the	O
extent	O
of	O
human	O
interactions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
broader	O
definition	O
was	O
provided	O
by	O
Geoff	O
Mulgan	O
in	O
a	O
series	O
of	O
lectures	O
and	O
reports	O
from	O
2006	O
onwards	O
and	O
in	O
the	O
book	O
Big	O
Mind	O
which	O
proposed	O
a	O
framework	O
for	O
analysing	O
any	O
thinking	O
system	O
,	O
including	O
both	O
human	O
and	O
machine	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
,	O
in	O
terms	O
of	O
functional	O
elements	O
(	O
observation	O
,	O
prediction	O
,	O
creativity	O
,	O
judgement	O
etc	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
According	O
to	O
Eric	O
S	O
.	O
Raymond	O
in	O
1998	O
and	O
JC	O
Herz	O
in	O
2005	O
,	O
open-source	B-Algorithm
intelligence	I-Algorithm
will	O
eventually	O
generate	O
superior	O
outcomes	O
to	O
knowledge	O
generated	O
by	O
proprietary	O
software	O
developed	O
within	O
corporations	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Wheeler	O
saw	O
this	O
collaborative	O
process	O
at	O
work	O
in	O
ants	B-Application
that	O
acted	O
like	O
the	O
cells	O
of	O
a	O
single	O
beast	O
he	O
called	O
a	O
superorganism	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Later	O
he	O
showed	O
how	O
the	O
collective	O
intelligences	O
of	O
competing	O
bacterial	O
colonies	O
and	O
human	O
societies	O
can	O
be	O
explained	O
in	O
terms	O
of	O
computer-generated	O
"	O
complex	O
adaptive	O
systems	O
"	O
and	O
the	O
"	O
genetic	B-Algorithm
algorithms	I-Algorithm
"	O
,	O
concepts	O
pioneered	O
by	O
John	O
Holland	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
David	O
Skrbina	O
cites	O
the	O
concept	O
of	O
a	O
'	O
group	B-General_Concept
mind	I-General_Concept
 '	O
as	O
being	O
derived	O
from	O
Plato	O
's	O
concept	O
of	O
panpsychism	O
(	O
that	O
mind	O
or	O
consciousness	O
is	O
omnipresent	O
and	O
exists	O
in	O
all	O
matter	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
He	O
develops	O
the	O
concept	O
of	O
a	O
'	O
group	B-General_Concept
mind	I-General_Concept
 '	O
as	O
articulated	O
by	O
Thomas	O
Hobbes	O
in	O
"	O
Leviathan	O
"	O
and	O
Fechner	O
's	O
arguments	O
for	O
a	O
collective	O
consciousness	O
of	O
mankind	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
He	O
cites	O
Durkheim	O
as	O
the	O
most	O
notable	O
advocate	O
of	O
a	O
"	O
collective	O
consciousness	O
"	O
and	O
Teilhard	O
de	O
Chardin	O
as	O
a	O
thinker	O
who	O
has	O
developed	O
the	O
philosophical	O
implications	O
of	O
the	O
group	B-General_Concept
mind	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Their	O
approach	O
is	O
rooted	O
in	O
scientific	B-Application
community	I-Application
metaphor	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
term	O
group	B-General_Concept
intelligence	I-General_Concept
is	O
sometimes	O
used	O
interchangeably	O
with	O
the	O
term	O
collective	O
intelligence	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Anita	O
Woolley	O
presents	O
Collective	O
intelligence	O
as	O
a	O
measure	O
of	O
group	B-General_Concept
intelligence	I-General_Concept
and	O
group	O
creativity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Atlee	O
and	O
Pór	O
suggest	O
that	O
the	O
field	O
of	O
collective	O
intelligence	O
should	O
primarily	O
be	O
seen	O
as	O
a	O
human	O
enterprise	O
in	O
which	O
mind-sets	O
,	O
a	O
willingness	O
to	O
share	O
and	O
an	O
openness	O
to	O
the	O
value	O
of	O
distributed	O
intelligence	O
for	O
the	O
common	O
good	O
are	O
paramount	O
,	O
though	O
group	O
theory	O
and	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
have	O
something	O
to	O
offer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Acting	O
Globally	O
-	O
The	O
advancement	O
in	O
communication	B-General_Concept
technology	I-General_Concept
has	O
prompted	O
the	O
rise	O
of	O
global	O
companies	O
at	O
low	O
overhead	O
costs	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
concept	O
is	O
in	O
contrast	O
to	O
competing	O
hypotheses	O
including	O
other	O
correlational	O
structures	O
to	O
explain	O
group	B-General_Concept
intelligence	I-General_Concept
,	O
such	O
as	O
a	O
composition	O
out	O
of	O
several	O
equally	O
important	O
but	O
independent	O
factors	O
as	O
found	O
in	O
individual	O
personality	O
research	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
proportion	O
of	O
females	O
as	O
a	O
predictor	O
of	O
c	O
was	O
largely	O
mediated	O
by	O
social	O
sensitivity	O
(	O
Sobel	B-General_Concept
z	O
=	O
1.93	O
,	O
P	O
=	O
0.03	O
)	O
which	O
is	O
in	O
vein	O
with	O
previous	O
research	O
showing	O
that	O
women	O
score	O
higher	O
on	O
social	O
sensitivity	O
tests	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
To	O
address	O
the	O
problems	O
of	O
serialized	O
aggregation	O
of	O
input	O
among	O
large-scale	O
groups	O
,	O
recent	O
advancements	O
collective	O
intelligence	O
have	O
worked	O
to	O
replace	O
serialized	O
votes	O
,	O
polls	O
,	O
and	O
markets	O
,	O
with	O
parallel	O
systems	O
such	O
as	O
"	O
human	B-Architecture
swarms	I-Architecture
"	O
modeled	O
after	O
synchronous	O
swarms	O
in	O
nature	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Based	O
on	O
natural	O
process	O
of	O
Swarm	B-Architecture
Intelligence	I-Architecture
,	O
these	O
artificial	O
swarms	O
of	O
networked	O
humans	O
enable	O
participants	O
to	O
work	O
together	O
in	O
parallel	O
to	O
answer	O
questions	O
and	O
make	O
predictions	O
as	O
an	O
emergent	O
collective	O
intelligence	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
one	O
high-profile	O
example	O
,	O
a	O
human	O
swarm	O
challenge	O
by	O
CBS	O
Interactive	B-General_Concept
to	O
predict	O
the	O
Kentucky	O
Derby	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
value	O
of	O
parallel	O
collective	O
intelligence	O
was	O
demonstrated	O
in	O
medical	O
applications	O
by	O
researchers	O
at	O
Stanford	O
University	O
School	O
of	O
Medicine	O
and	O
Unanimous	O
AI	B-Application
in	O
a	O
set	O
of	O
published	O
studies	O
wherein	O
groups	O
of	O
human	O
doctors	O
were	O
connected	O
by	O
real-time	O
swarming	O
algorithms	O
and	O
tasked	O
with	O
diagnosing	O
chest	O
x-rays	O
for	O
the	O
presence	O
of	O
pneumonia	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
working	O
together	O
as	O
"	O
human	B-Architecture
swarms	I-Architecture
,	O
"	O
the	O
groups	O
of	O
experienced	O
radiologists	O
demonstrated	O
a	O
33%	O
reduction	O
in	O
diagnostic	O
errors	O
as	O
compared	O
to	O
traditional	O
methods	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
measure	O
sometimes	O
applied	O
,	O
especially	O
by	O
more	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
focused	O
theorists	O
,	O
is	O
a	O
"	O
collective	O
intelligence	O
quotient	O
"	O
(	O
or	O
"	O
cooperation	O
quotient	O
"	O
)	O
–	O
which	O
can	O
be	O
normalized	O
from	O
the	O
"	O
individual	O
"	O
intelligence	O
quotient	O
(	O
IQ	O
)	O
–	O
thus	O
making	O
it	O
possible	O
to	O
determine	O
the	O
marginal	O
intelligence	O
added	O
by	O
each	O
new	O
individual	O
participating	O
in	O
the	O
collective	O
action	O
,	O
thus	O
using	O
metrics	O
to	O
avoid	O
the	O
hazards	O
of	O
group	O
think	O
and	O
stupidity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
ideas	O
on	O
solving	O
a	O
data	O
science	O
problem	O
(	O
as	O
in	O
Kaggle	B-Application
)	O
or	O
getting	O
a	O
good	O
design	O
for	O
a	O
T-shirt	O
(	O
as	O
in	O
Threadless	O
)	O
or	O
in	O
getting	O
answers	O
to	O
simple	O
problems	O
that	O
only	O
humans	O
can	O
do	O
well	O
(	O
as	O
in	O
Amazon	O
's	O
Mechanical	O
Turk	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Companies	O
such	O
as	O
Affinnova	O
(	O
acquired	O
by	O
Nielsen	O
)	O
,	O
Google	B-Application
,	O
InnoCentive	O
,	O
Marketocracy	O
,	O
and	O
Threadless	O
have	O
successfully	O
employed	O
the	O
concept	O
of	O
collective	O
intelligence	O
in	O
bringing	O
about	O
the	O
next	O
generation	O
of	O
technological	O
changes	O
through	O
their	O
research	O
and	O
development	O
(	O
R&D	O
)	O
,	O
customer	O
service	O
,	O
and	O
knowledge	O
management	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
example	O
of	O
such	O
application	O
is	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
Project	O
Aristotle	O
in	O
2012	O
,	O
where	O
the	O
effect	O
of	O
collective	O
intelligence	O
on	O
team	O
makeup	O
was	O
examined	O
in	O
hundreds	O
of	O
the	O
company	O
's	O
R&D	O
teams	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
use	O
of	O
interactive	B-General_Concept
new	O
media	O
,	O
particularly	O
the	O
internet	O
,	O
promotes	O
online	O
interaction	O
and	O
this	O
distribution	O
of	O
knowledge	O
between	O
users	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Francis	O
Heylighen	O
,	O
Valentin	O
Turchin	O
,	O
and	O
Gottfried	O
Mayer-Kress	O
are	O
among	O
those	O
who	O
view	O
collective	O
intelligence	O
through	O
the	O
lens	O
of	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
and	O
cybernetics	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lévy	O
and	O
de	O
Kerckhove	O
consider	O
CI	O
from	O
a	O
mass	O
communications	O
perspective	O
,	O
focusing	O
on	O
the	O
ability	O
of	O
networked	O
information	B-General_Concept
and	I-General_Concept
communication	I-General_Concept
technologies	I-General_Concept
to	O
enhance	O
the	O
community	O
knowledge	O
pool	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Collective	O
intelligence	O
as	O
represented	O
by	O
Web	O
2.0	O
has	O
less	O
user	O
engagement	O
than	O
collaborative	B-General_Concept
intelligence	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
art	O
project	O
using	O
Web	O
2.0	O
platforms	O
is	O
"	O
Shared	O
Galaxy	O
"	O
,	O
an	O
experiment	O
developed	O
by	O
an	O
anonymous	O
artist	O
to	O
create	O
a	O
collective	O
identity	O
that	O
shows	O
up	O
as	O
one	O
person	O
on	O
several	O
platforms	O
like	O
MySpace	O
,	O
Facebook	O
,	O
YouTube	O
and	O
Second	B-Application
Life	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Later	O
work	O
developed	O
by	O
Aldred	O
used	O
the	O
UNU	O
swarm	B-Architecture
intelligence	I-Architecture
system	O
to	O
create	O
digital	O
drawings	O
and	O
paintings	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
social	B-General_Concept
bookmarking	I-General_Concept
(	O
also	O
called	O
collaborative	B-General_Concept
tagging	I-General_Concept
)	O
,	O
users	O
assign	O
tags	O
to	O
resources	O
shared	O
with	O
other	O
users	O
,	O
which	O
gives	O
rise	O
to	O
a	O
type	O
of	O
information	O
organisation	O
that	O
emerges	O
from	O
this	O
crowdsourcing	O
process	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
resulting	O
information	O
structure	O
can	O
be	O
seen	O
as	O
reflecting	O
the	O
collective	O
knowledge	O
(	O
or	O
collective	O
intelligence	O
)	O
of	O
a	O
community	O
of	O
users	O
and	O
is	O
commonly	O
called	O
a	O
"	O
Folksonomy	B-General_Concept
"	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
process	O
can	O
be	O
captured	O
by	O
models	B-Architecture
of	I-Architecture
collaborative	I-Architecture
tagging	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Recent	O
research	O
using	O
data	O
from	O
the	O
social	B-General_Concept
bookmarking	I-General_Concept
website	I-General_Concept
Delicious	B-Application
,	O
has	O
shown	O
that	O
collaborative	B-General_Concept
tagging	I-General_Concept
systems	O
exhibit	O
a	O
form	O
of	O
complex	O
systems	O
(	O
or	O
self-organizing	O
)	O
dynamics	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Once	O
such	O
stable	O
distributions	O
form	O
,	O
examining	O
the	O
correlations	O
between	O
different	O
tags	O
can	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
construct	O
simple	O
folksonomy	B-General_Concept
graphs	O
,	O
which	O
can	O
be	O
efficiently	O
partitioned	O
to	O
obtained	O
a	O
form	O
of	O
community	O
or	O
shared	O
vocabularies	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Wall-it	O
Project	O
is	O
also	O
an	O
example	O
of	O
social	B-General_Concept
bookmarking	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Firms	O
can	O
create	O
a	O
new	O
market	O
for	O
complementary	O
goods	O
by	O
engaging	O
in	O
open-source	B-Application
community	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
increase	O
in	O
user	O
created	O
content	O
and	O
interactivity	B-General_Concept
gives	O
rise	O
to	O
issues	O
of	O
control	O
over	O
the	O
game	O
itself	O
and	O
ownership	O
of	O
the	O
player-created	O
content	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Early	O
testing	O
shows	O
that	O
human	B-Architecture
swarms	I-Architecture
can	O
out-predict	O
individuals	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
learner-generated	B-Operating_System
context	I-Operating_System
a	O
group	O
of	O
users	O
marshal	O
resources	O
to	O
create	O
an	O
ecology	O
that	O
meets	O
their	O
needs	O
often	O
(	O
but	O
not	O
only	O
)	O
in	O
relation	O
to	O
the	O
co-configuration	O
,	O
co-creation	O
and	O
co-design	O
of	O
a	O
particular	O
learning	O
space	O
that	O
allows	O
learners	O
to	O
create	O
their	O
own	O
context	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Learner-generated	B-Operating_System
contexts	I-Operating_System
represent	O
an	O
ad	O
hoc	O
community	O
that	O
facilitates	O
coordination	O
of	O
collective	O
action	O
in	O
a	O
network	O
of	O
trust	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
example	O
of	O
learner-generated	B-Operating_System
context	I-Operating_System
is	O
found	O
on	O
the	O
Internet	O
when	O
collaborative	O
users	O
pool	O
knowledge	O
in	O
a	O
"	O
shared	O
intelligence	O
space	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Games	O
such	O
as	O
The	B-Application
Sims	I-Application
Series	O
,	O
and	O
Second	B-Application
Life	I-Application
are	O
designed	O
to	O
be	O
non-linear	O
and	O
to	O
depend	O
on	O
collective	O
intelligence	O
for	O
expansion	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
Terry	O
Flew	O
's	O
discussion	O
of	O
'	O
interactivity	B-General_Concept
 '	O
in	O
the	O
online	O
games	O
environment	O
,	O
the	O
ongoing	O
interactive	B-General_Concept
dialogue	O
between	O
users	O
and	O
game	O
developers	O
,	O
he	O
refers	O
to	O
Pierre	O
Lévy	O
's	O
concept	O
of	O
Collective	O
Intelligence	O
and	O
argues	O
this	O
is	O
active	O
in	O
videogames	O
as	O
clans	O
or	O
guilds	O
in	O
MMORPG	B-Protocol
constantly	O
work	O
to	O
achieve	O
goals	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Improvisational	O
actors	O
also	O
experience	O
a	O
type	O
of	O
collective	O
intelligence	O
which	O
they	O
term	O
"	O
group	B-General_Concept
mind	I-General_Concept
"	O
,	O
as	O
theatrical	O
improvisation	O
relies	O
on	O
mutual	O
cooperation	O
and	O
agreement	O
,	O
leading	O
to	O
the	O
unity	O
of	O
"	O
group	B-General_Concept
mind	I-General_Concept
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
such	O
an	O
integrated	O
framework	O
proposed	O
by	O
Ebner	O
et	O
al.	O
,	O
idea	O
competitions	O
and	O
virtual	O
communities	O
are	O
combined	O
to	O
better	O
realize	O
the	O
potential	O
of	O
the	O
collective	O
intelligence	O
of	O
the	O
participants	O
,	O
particularly	O
in	O
open-source	B-Application
R&D	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Skeptics	O
,	O
especially	O
those	O
critical	O
of	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
and	O
more	O
inclined	O
to	O
believe	O
that	O
risk	O
of	O
bodily	O
harm	O
and	O
bodily	O
action	O
are	O
the	O
basis	O
of	O
all	O
unity	O
between	O
people	O
,	O
are	O
more	O
likely	O
to	O
emphasize	O
the	O
capacity	O
of	O
a	O
group	O
to	O
take	O
action	O
and	O
withstand	O
harm	O
as	O
one	O
fluid	O
mass	O
mobilization	O
,	O
shrugging	O
off	O
harms	O
the	O
way	O
a	O
body	O
shrugs	O
off	O
the	O
loss	O
of	O
a	O
few	O
cells	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
train	O
of	O
thought	O
is	O
most	O
obvious	O
in	O
the	O
anti-globalization	O
movement	O
and	O
characterized	O
by	O
the	O
works	O
of	O
John	O
Zerzan	O
,	O
Carol	O
Moore	O
,	O
and	O
Starhawk	B-Application
,	O
who	O
typically	O
shun	O
academics	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
theorists	O
are	O
more	O
likely	O
to	O
refer	O
to	O
ecological	O
and	O
collective	B-General_Concept
wisdom	I-General_Concept
and	O
to	O
the	O
role	O
of	O
consensus	O
process	O
in	O
making	O
ontological	O
distinctions	O
than	O
to	O
any	O
form	O
of	O
"	O
intelligence	O
"	O
as	O
such	O
,	O
which	O
they	O
often	O
argue	O
does	O
not	O
exist	O
,	O
or	O
is	O
mere	O
"	O
cleverness	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Harsh	O
critics	O
of	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
on	O
ethical	O
grounds	O
are	O
likely	O
to	O
promote	O
collective	O
wisdom-building	O
methods	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
new	O
tribalists	O
and	O
the	O
Gaians	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Bill	O
Joy	O
,	O
simply	O
wish	O
to	O
avoid	O
any	O
form	O
of	O
autonomous	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
and	O
seem	O
willing	O
to	O
work	O
on	O
rigorous	O
collective	O
intelligence	O
in	O
order	O
to	O
remove	O
any	O
possible	O
niche	O
for	O
AI	B-Application
.	O
</s>
