<s>
Google	O
LLC	O
v	O
.	O
Oracle	O
America	O
,	O
Inc.	O
,	O
593	O
U.S.	O
___	O
(	O
2021	O
)	O
,	O
was	O
a	O
U.S.	O
Supreme	O
Court	O
decision	O
related	O
to	O
the	O
nature	O
of	O
computer	B-Application
code	I-Application
and	O
copyright	O
law	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
dispute	O
centered	O
on	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
parts	O
of	O
the	O
Java	B-Language
programming	I-Language
language	I-Language
's	O
application	B-Application
programming	I-Application
interfaces	I-Application
(	O
APIs	B-Application
)	O
and	O
about	O
11,000	O
lines	O
of	O
source	O
code	O
,	O
which	O
are	O
owned	O
by	O
Oracle	B-Application
(	O
through	O
subsidiary	O
,	O
Oracle	B-Application
America	I-Application
,	O
Inc.	O
,	O
originating	O
from	O
Sun	O
Microsystems	O
)	O
,	O
within	O
early	O
versions	O
of	O
the	O
Android	B-Application
operating	I-Application
system	I-Application
by	O
Google	B-Application
.	I-Application
</s>
<s>
Google	B-Application
has	O
since	O
transitioned	O
Android	B-Application
to	O
a	O
copyright-unburdened	O
engine	O
without	O
the	O
source	O
code	O
,	O
and	O
has	O
admitted	O
to	O
using	O
the	O
APIs	B-Application
but	O
claimed	O
this	O
was	O
within	O
fair	O
use	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Oracle	B-Application
initiated	O
the	O
suit	O
arguing	O
that	O
the	O
APIs	B-Application
were	O
copyrightable	O
,	O
seeking	O
in	O
damages	O
from	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
sales	O
and	O
licensing	O
of	O
the	O
earlier	O
infringing	O
versions	O
of	O
Android	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
two	O
District	O
Court-level	O
jury	O
trials	O
found	O
in	O
favor	O
of	O
Google	B-Application
,	O
the	O
Federal	O
Circuit	O
court	O
reversed	O
both	O
decisions	O
,	O
asserting	O
APIs	B-Application
are	O
copyrightable	O
and	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
use	O
does	O
not	O
fall	O
under	O
fair	O
use	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Google	B-Application
successfully	O
petitioned	O
to	O
the	O
Supreme	O
Court	O
to	O
hear	O
the	O
case	O
in	O
the	O
2019	O
term	O
,	O
focusing	O
on	O
the	O
copyrightability	O
of	O
APIs	B-Application
and	O
subsequent	O
fair	O
use	O
;	O
the	O
case	O
was	O
delayed	O
to	O
the	O
2020	O
term	O
due	O
to	O
the	O
COVID-19	O
pandemic	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
April	O
2021	O
,	O
the	O
Supreme	O
Court	O
ruled	O
in	O
a	O
6	O
–	O
2	O
decision	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
use	O
of	O
the	O
Java	B-Device
APIs	B-Application
fell	O
within	O
the	O
four	O
factors	O
of	O
fair	O
use	O
,	O
bypassing	O
the	O
question	O
on	O
the	O
copyrightability	O
of	O
the	O
APIs	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
case	O
has	O
been	O
of	O
significant	O
interest	O
within	O
the	O
tech	O
and	O
software	O
industries	O
,	O
as	O
numerous	O
computer	B-Application
programs	I-Application
and	O
software	B-Library
libraries	I-Library
,	O
particularly	O
in	O
open	B-License
source	I-License
,	O
are	O
developed	O
by	O
recreating	O
the	O
functionality	O
of	O
APIs	B-Application
from	O
commercial	O
or	O
competing	O
products	O
to	O
aid	O
developers	O
in	O
interoperability	O
between	O
different	O
systems	O
or	O
platforms	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Java	B-Device
was	O
originally	O
developed	O
at	O
Sun	O
Microsystems	O
starting	O
in	O
December	O
1990	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
included	O
a	O
new	O
programming	O
language	O
,	O
a	O
virtual	O
machine	O
,	O
and	O
a	O
set	O
of	O
libraries	B-Library
for	O
use	O
with	O
the	O
language	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
libraries	B-Library
are	O
documented	O
for	O
programmers	O
via	O
application	B-Application
programming	I-Application
interfaces	I-Application
(	O
APIs	B-Application
)	O
,	O
which	O
tell	O
programmers	O
what	O
information	O
to	O
provide	O
to	O
library	B-Library
functions	I-Library
and	O
what	O
results	O
to	O
expect	O
back	O
,	O
eliminating	O
any	O
need	O
for	O
the	O
programmer	O
to	O
know	O
how	O
the	O
library	O
they	O
are	O
using	O
does	O
what	O
it	O
does	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
libraries	B-Library
together	O
provide	O
the	O
"	O
Java	B-Device
virtual	O
machine	O
"	O
which	O
programmers	O
write	O
programs	O
to	O
use	O
(	O
run	O
upon	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
common	O
way	O
in	O
which	O
a	O
common	O
set	O
of	O
libraries	B-Library
are	O
used	O
across	O
all	O
"	O
Java	B-Device
virtual	O
machines	O
"	O
allows	O
for	O
interoperability	O
,	O
or	O
as	O
marketed	O
by	O
Sun	O
,	O
"	O
Write	O
once	O
,	O
run	O
anywhere	O
"	O
;	O
a	O
programmer	O
need	O
only	O
create	O
one	O
version	O
of	O
their	O
software	O
which	O
,	O
because	O
of	O
the	O
single	O
group	O
of	O
APIs	B-Application
common	O
to	O
all	O
Java	B-Device
virtual	O
machines	O
,	O
can	O
thus	O
be	O
run	O
on	O
any	O
computing	O
platform	O
that	O
supports	O
Java	B-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Java	B-Language
language	I-Language
was	O
released	O
to	O
the	O
public	O
in	O
1995	O
,	O
under	O
the	O
Sun	B-License
Community	I-License
Source	I-License
License	I-License
,	O
making	O
the	O
source	O
code	O
freely	O
available	O
but	O
requiring	O
that	O
products	O
using	O
the	O
code	O
were	O
maintained	O
to	O
the	O
Java	B-Device
standard	O
,	O
and	O
that	O
any	O
commercial	O
derivative	O
works	O
were	O
licensed	O
by	O
Sun	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
anyone	O
could	O
program	O
in	O
the	O
language	O
itself	O
,	O
Sun	O
maintained	O
the	O
Java	B-Language
Platform	I-Language
,	I-Language
Standard	I-Language
Edition	I-Language
(	O
Java	B-Language
SE	I-Language
)	O
and	O
Mobile	B-Language
Edition	I-Language
(	O
Java	B-Language
ME	I-Language
)	O
libraries	B-Library
,	O
provided	O
to	O
users	O
as	O
pre-compiled	O
Java	B-Language
bytecode	I-Language
,	O
and	O
their	O
respective	O
APIs	B-Application
,	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
the	O
Technology	B-Language
Compatibility	I-Language
Kits	I-Language
(	O
TCKs	O
)	O
that	O
tested	O
an	O
implementation	O
against	O
the	O
Java	B-Device
standard	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Over	O
2006	O
and	O
2007	O
,	O
due	O
to	O
pressure	O
from	O
developers	O
,	O
Sun	O
changed	O
the	O
license	O
of	O
the	O
various	O
Java	B-Device
packages	O
to	O
use	O
the	O
GNU	B-License
General	I-License
Public	I-License
License	I-License
with	O
a	O
"	O
classpath	O
exception	O
"	O
,	O
allowing	O
developers	O
the	O
access	O
necessary	O
to	O
make	O
derivative	O
works	O
and	O
the	O
ability	O
to	O
release	O
applications	O
under	O
a	O
different	O
license	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
led	O
to	O
the	O
OpenJDK	B-Language
(	O
Open	B-Language
Java	I-Language
Development	I-Language
Kit	I-Language
)	O
,	O
first	O
released	O
in	O
2007	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
At	O
this	O
time	O
,	O
Sun	O
's	O
business	O
model	O
changed	O
to	O
focusing	O
on	O
licensing	O
of	O
the	O
Java	B-Device
platform	I-Device
to	O
embedded	B-Architecture
devices	I-Architecture
,	O
particularly	O
mobile	O
phones	O
,	O
and	O
had	O
already	O
made	O
licensing	O
deals	O
with	O
Nokia	O
,	O
Motorola	O
,	O
and	O
Research	O
In	O
Motion	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Android	B-Application
,	O
Inc	O
.	O
was	O
founded	O
in	O
2003	O
by	O
Andy	O
Rubin	O
,	O
Rich	O
Miner	O
,	O
Nick	O
Sears	O
,	O
and	O
Chris	O
White	O
to	O
develop	O
a	O
mobile	O
phone	O
platform	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Google	B-Application
purchased	O
Android	B-Application
in	O
2005	O
and	O
continued	O
developing	O
the	O
Android	B-Application
operating	I-Application
system	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
During	O
the	O
development	O
of	O
Android	B-Application
,	O
Google	B-Application
wanted	O
to	O
incorporate	O
the	O
Java	B-Language
SE	I-Language
libraries	B-Library
.	O
</s>
<s>
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
executive	O
chairman	O
Eric	O
Schmidt	O
had	O
approached	O
Sun	O
's	O
president	O
Jonathan	O
I	O
.	O
Schwartz	O
about	O
licensing	O
the	O
Java	B-Device
libraries	B-Library
for	O
use	O
in	O
Android	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Schmidt	O
said	O
Google	B-Application
would	O
have	O
paid	O
for	O
that	O
license	O
,	O
but	O
they	O
were	O
concerned	O
that	O
Sun	O
had	O
also	O
requested	O
some	O
shared	O
control	O
of	O
Android	B-Application
along	O
with	O
the	O
fee	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Google	B-Application
states	O
that	O
they	O
wanted	O
more	O
control	O
in	O
order	O
to	O
open	B-License
source	I-License
the	O
language	O
and	O
allow	O
third	O
parties	O
to	O
take	O
better	O
advantage	O
of	O
its	O
code	O
;	O
Oracle	B-Application
states	O
that	O
Sun	O
refused	O
because	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
intention	O
was	O
essentially	O
to	O
fork	B-Application
Java	B-Device
to	O
a	O
Google	B-Application
version	O
of	O
the	O
language	O
,	O
and	O
to	O
prevent	O
it	O
being	O
inter-operable	O
with	O
other	O
versions	O
,	O
an	O
idea	O
which	O
was	O
"	O
anathema	O
"	O
to	O
the	O
"	O
write	O
once	O
run	O
anywhere	O
"	O
basis	O
of	O
the	O
language	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Because	O
of	O
these	O
differences	O
of	O
view	O
,	O
the	O
negotiations	O
failed	O
to	O
reach	O
a	O
deal	O
and	O
Sun	O
refused	O
Google	B-Application
a	O
license	O
for	O
Java	B-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
At	O
this	O
point	O
in	O
time	O
,	O
the	O
OpenJDK	B-Language
implementation	O
offered	O
by	O
Sun	O
was	O
not	O
as	O
mature	O
or	O
complete	O
as	O
the	O
Java	B-Language
Standard	I-Language
Edition	I-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Instead	O
of	O
licensing	O
Java	B-Device
,	O
Google	B-Application
chose	O
to	O
develop	O
a	O
cleanroom	O
version	O
of	O
the	O
Java	B-Language
Standard	I-Language
Edition	I-Language
libraries	B-Library
,	O
developing	O
the	O
libraries	B-Library
from	O
a	O
completely	O
fresh	O
start	O
without	O
any	O
access	O
to	O
Sun	O
's	O
code	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
became	O
the	O
engine	O
behind	O
Android	B-Application
's	O
Dalvik	B-Application
virtual	I-Application
machine	I-Application
,	O
a	O
core	O
part	O
of	O
the	O
new	O
system	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Part	O
of	O
the	O
virtual	O
machine	O
included	O
37	O
API	B-Application
calls	O
and	O
around	O
11,500	O
lines	O
of	O
code	O
deemed	O
central	O
to	O
Java	B-Device
,	O
which	O
were	O
taken	O
from	O
Apache	B-Application
Harmony	I-Application
,	O
an	O
open-source	B-License
cleanroom	O
Java	B-Device
implementation	O
developed	O
by	O
the	O
Apache	O
Software	O
Foundation	O
(	O
ASF	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Prior	O
to	O
this	O
,	O
the	O
ASF	O
had	O
tried	O
to	O
obtain	O
necessary	O
licenses	O
from	O
Sun	O
to	O
support	O
the	O
Apache	B-Application
Harmony	I-Application
project	O
as	O
to	O
call	O
it	O
an	O
official	O
Java	B-Device
implementation	O
,	O
but	O
could	O
not	O
,	O
in	O
part	O
due	O
to	O
incompatible	O
licensing	O
with	O
Java	B-Device
's	O
GNU	B-License
General	I-License
Public	I-License
License	I-License
and	O
ASF	O
's	O
Apache	B-Application
License	I-Application
,	O
nor	O
could	O
it	O
gain	O
access	O
to	O
the	O
Java	B-Device
TCKs	O
to	O
validate	O
the	O
Harmony	O
project	O
against	O
Sun	O
's	O
implementation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Though	O
Google	B-Application
stated	O
they	O
used	O
this	O
code	O
to	O
ensure	O
interoperability	O
with	O
the	O
Java	B-Language
Standard	I-Language
Edition	I-Language
for	O
other	O
programmers	O
,	O
during	O
the	O
second	O
appeal	O
hearing	O
,	O
Google	B-Application
stated	O
that	O
it	O
had	O
used	O
this	O
code	O
for	O
commercial	O
reasons	O
to	O
rapidly	O
complete	O
Android	B-Application
and	O
to	O
avoid	O
the	O
"	O
drudgery	O
"	O
of	O
recreating	O
the	O
code	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ASF	O
ceased	O
maintaining	O
the	O
Apache	B-Application
Harmony	I-Application
in	O
2011	O
,	O
leading	O
Google	B-Application
to	O
take	O
over	O
maintenance	O
of	O
these	O
libraries	B-Library
.	O
</s>
<s>
Google	B-Application
released	O
a	O
beta	O
of	O
the	O
Android	B-Application
platform	I-Application
on	O
November	O
5	O
,	O
2007	O
then	O
,	O
one	O
week	O
later	O
,	O
the	O
software	B-Application
development	I-Application
kit	I-Application
(	O
SDK	O
)	O
which	O
they	O
noted	O
included	O
some	O
Java	B-Device
technologies	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Sun	O
's	O
president	O
Schwartz	O
congratulated	O
Google	B-Application
the	O
same	O
day	O
,	O
saying	O
they	O
had	O
"	O
strapped	O
another	O
set	O
of	O
rockets	O
to	O
the	O
community	O
's	O
momentum	O
and	O
to	O
the	O
vision	O
defining	O
opportunity	O
across	O
our	O
(	O
and	O
other	O
)	O
planets.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
During	O
the	O
trial	O
,	O
Schwartz	O
said	O
that	O
at	O
that	O
time	O
of	O
Android	B-Application
's	O
release	O
,	O
despite	O
knowing	O
Google	B-Application
may	O
have	O
bypassed	O
their	O
licensing	O
requirements	O
,	O
"	O
We	O
decided	O
to	O
grit	O
our	O
teeth	O
and	O
support	O
it	O
so	O
anyone	O
supporting	O
it	O
would	O
see	O
us	O
as	O
part	O
of	O
the	O
value	O
chain	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Oracle	B-Application
announced	O
it	O
would	O
purchase	O
Sun	O
in	O
April	O
2009	O
for	O
,	O
and	O
completed	O
the	O
acquisition	O
in	O
January	O
2010	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Besides	O
allowing	O
them	O
to	O
enter	O
the	O
hardware	O
business	O
,	O
Oracle	B-Application
's	O
CEO	O
Larry	O
Ellison	O
called	O
the	O
Java	B-Language
language	I-Language
"	O
the	O
single	O
most	O
important	O
software	O
asset	O
we	O
have	O
ever	O
acquired	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Oracle	B-Application
continued	O
to	O
develop	O
Java	B-Device
and	O
pursue	O
licensing	O
opportunities	O
following	O
its	O
acquisition	O
of	O
Sun	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
the	O
release	O
of	O
Android	B-Application
KitKat	I-Application
(	O
v4.4	O
)	O
in	O
2013	O
,	O
Google	B-Application
removed	O
the	O
Dalvik	B-Application
virtual	I-Application
machine	I-Application
and	O
replaced	O
it	O
with	O
the	O
Android	B-Application
Runtime	I-Application
,	O
which	O
had	O
been	O
built	O
within	O
Google	B-Application
without	O
any	O
of	O
the	O
Java	B-Language
source	I-Language
code	I-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
Android	B-Application
continued	O
to	O
use	O
the	O
JavaSE	B-Language
APIs	B-Application
through	O
the	O
extent	O
of	O
the	O
case	O
's	O
litigation	O
up	O
until	O
Android	B-Application
Nougat	I-Application
when	O
it	O
was	O
fully	O
replaced	O
by	O
OpenJDK	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Oracle	B-Application
successfully	O
established	O
that	O
APIs	B-Application
are	O
copyrightable	O
,	O
but	O
their	O
claims	O
of	O
patent	O
infringement	O
were	O
rejected	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
On	O
August	O
13	O
,	O
2010	O
,	O
Oracle	B-Application
sued	O
Google	B-Application
for	O
copyright	O
and	O
patent	O
infringement	O
in	O
the	O
District	O
Court	O
for	O
the	O
Northern	O
District	O
of	O
California	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Oracle	B-Application
asserted	O
Google	B-Application
was	O
aware	O
that	O
they	O
had	O
developed	O
Android	B-Application
without	O
a	O
Java	B-Device
license	O
and	O
copied	O
its	O
APIs	B-Application
,	O
and	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
therefore	O
infringed	O
Oracle	B-Application
's	O
copyright	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Oracle	B-Application
also	O
cited	O
seven	O
prior	O
patents	O
related	O
to	O
the	O
Java	B-Device
technology	I-Device
created	O
by	O
Sun	O
and	O
now	O
owned	O
by	O
Oracle	B-Application
that	O
Google	B-Application
should	O
have	O
been	O
aware	O
of	O
as	O
they	O
had	O
hired	O
former	O
Sun	O
developers	O
that	O
worked	O
on	O
Java	B-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Oracle	B-Application
sought	O
both	O
monetary	O
damages	O
and	O
an	O
injunction	O
to	O
stop	O
Google	B-Application
from	O
using	O
the	O
allegedly	O
infringing	O
materials	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
copyright	O
phase	O
started	O
on	O
April	O
16	O
,	O
2012	O
,	O
and	O
consisted	O
of	O
several	O
distinct	O
claims	O
of	O
infringement	O
:	O
a	O
nine-line	O
rangeCheck	O
function	O
,	O
several	O
test	O
files	O
,	O
the	O
structure	O
,	O
sequence	O
and	O
organization	O
(	O
SSO	O
)	O
of	O
the	O
Java	B-Device
(	O
API	B-Application
)	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
API	B-Application
documentation	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Oracle	B-Application
alleged	O
infringement	O
of	O
37	O
separate	O
Java	B-Device
APIs	B-Application
which	O
had	O
derived	O
from	O
the	O
Apache	B-Application
Harmony	I-Application
project	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
After	O
two	O
weeks	O
of	O
testimony	O
,	O
the	O
jury	O
found	O
on	O
May	O
7	O
,	O
2012	O
,	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
had	O
infringed	O
on	O
the	O
copyright	O
related	O
to	O
the	O
code	O
,	O
SSO	O
,	O
and	O
documentation	O
of	O
the	O
APIs	B-Application
as	O
well	O
as	O
the	O
rangeCheck	O
function	O
,	O
but	O
were	O
deadlocked	O
on	O
whether	O
these	O
uses	O
fell	O
within	O
fair	O
use	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
jury	O
also	O
found	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
had	O
sufficient	O
reason	O
to	O
believe	O
based	O
on	O
Sun	O
's	O
and	O
Oracle	B-Application
's	O
conduct	O
that	O
they	O
did	O
not	O
need	O
to	O
license	O
Java	B-Device
from	O
Sun	O
or	O
Oracle	B-Application
,	O
but	O
did	O
not	O
rely	O
on	O
this	O
when	O
developing	O
Android	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Oracle	B-Application
requested	O
a	O
judgement	O
as	O
a	O
matter	O
of	O
law	O
(	O
JMOL	O
)	O
that	O
the	O
case	O
dismiss	O
any	O
fair	O
use	O
defense	O
since	O
the	O
jury	O
was	O
split	O
,	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
to	O
overturn	O
the	O
jury	O
's	O
decision	O
on	O
eight	O
security-related	O
files	O
that	O
they	O
had	O
reviewed	O
and	O
found	O
non-infringing	O
but	O
which	O
Google	B-Application
had	O
stated	O
they	O
copied	O
verbatim	O
;	O
Alsup	O
concurred	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Google	B-Application
asked	O
for	O
a	O
similar	O
JMOL	O
related	O
to	O
rangeCheck	O
,	O
but	O
Alsup	O
denied	O
this	O
request	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
the	O
time	O
of	O
trial	O
,	O
Oracle	B-Application
's	O
patent	O
case	O
comprised	O
claims	O
from	O
two	O
patents	O
,	O
6,061,520	O
(	O
Method	O
and	O
system	O
for	O
performing	O
static	O
initialization	O
)	O
,	O
(	O
the	O
'	O
520	O
patent	O
)	O
and	O
RE38104	O
(	O
Method	O
and	O
apparatus	O
for	O
resolving	O
data	O
references	O
in	O
generated	O
code	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Google	B-Application
pursued	O
a	O
non-infringement	O
defense	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
the	O
jury	O
had	O
found	O
for	O
Oracle	B-Application
regarding	O
copyright	O
infringement	O
of	O
the	O
APIs	B-Application
,	O
Alsup	O
determined	O
that	O
the	O
APIs	B-Application
were	O
not	O
copyrightable	O
in	O
the	O
first	O
place	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
Shortly	O
following	O
the	O
conclusion	O
of	O
the	O
District	O
Court	O
case	O
,	O
both	O
parties	O
attempted	O
to	O
file	O
additional	O
JMOLs	O
on	O
elements	O
of	O
the	O
ruling	O
which	O
Alsup	O
dismissed	O
,	O
leading	O
to	O
Oracle	B-Application
appealing	O
the	O
decision	O
and	O
Google	B-Application
filing	O
a	O
cross-appeal	O
on	O
the	O
literal	O
copying	O
claim	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
legislative	O
history	O
explains	O
that	O
literary	O
works	O
include	O
"	O
computer	B-Application
programs	I-Application
to	O
the	O
extent	O
that	O
they	O
incorporate	O
authorship	O
in	O
the	O
programmer	O
's	O
expression	O
of	O
original	O
ideas	O
,	O
as	O
distinguished	O
from	O
the	O
ideas	O
themselves	O
"	O
(	O
p.18	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
court	O
was	O
therefore	O
"	O
first	O
to	O
assess	O
whether	O
the	O
expression	O
is	O
original	O
to	O
the	O
programmer	O
"	O
(	O
p.24	O
)	O
,	O
something	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
had	O
already	O
conceded	O
(	O
p.21	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
led	O
the	O
court	O
to	O
conclude	O
"	O
that	O
the	O
overall	O
structure	O
of	O
Oracle	B-Application
's	O
API	B-Application
packages	O
is	O
creative	O
,	O
original	O
,	O
and	O
resembles	O
a	O
taxonomy	O
"	O
(	O
p.14	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
therefore	O
reversed	O
the	O
district	O
court	O
's	O
decision	O
on	O
the	O
central	O
issue	O
,	O
holding	O
that	O
the	O
"	O
structure	O
,	O
sequence	O
and	O
organization	O
"	O
of	O
an	O
API	B-Application
is	O
copyrightable	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
also	O
ruled	O
for	O
Oracle	B-Application
regarding	O
the	O
small	O
amount	O
of	O
literal	O
copying	O
,	O
holding	O
that	O
it	O
was	O
not	O
de	O
minimis	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
case	O
was	O
remanded	O
to	O
the	O
District	O
Court	O
for	O
a	O
second	O
trial	O
,	O
to	O
consider	O
whether	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
use	O
was	O
acceptable	O
anyway	O
,	O
under	O
the	O
doctrine	O
of	O
fair	O
use	O
,	O
since	O
the	O
original	O
case	O
had	O
not	O
brought	O
out	O
the	O
facts	O
related	O
to	O
fair	O
use	O
sufficiently	O
for	O
the	O
Appeal	O
Court	O
to	O
rule	O
on	O
that	O
point	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
October	O
2014	O
,	O
Google	B-Application
petitioned	O
the	O
U.S.	O
Supreme	O
Court	O
to	O
hear	O
the	O
case	O
;	O
this	O
request	O
was	O
denied	O
in	O
June	O
2015	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
ordered	O
by	O
the	O
Appeals	O
Court	O
,	O
a	O
new	O
district	O
court	O
trial	O
began	O
on	O
May	O
9	O
,	O
2016	O
,	O
on	O
the	O
question	O
of	O
whether	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
actions	O
were	O
fair	O
use	O
given	O
the	O
prior	O
ruling	O
that	O
the	O
APIs	B-Application
were	O
copyrightable	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Oracle	B-Application
was	O
seeking	O
damages	O
of	O
up	O
to	O
US$9	O
billion	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
On	O
May	O
26	O
,	O
2016	O
,	O
the	O
jury	O
found	O
that	O
Android	B-Application
did	O
not	O
infringe	O
Oracle-owned	O
copyrights	O
because	O
its	O
re-implementation	O
of	O
37	O
Java	B-Device
APIs	B-Application
was	O
protected	O
by	O
fair	O
use	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Oracle	B-Application
announced	O
its	O
intention	O
to	O
appeal	O
,	O
but	O
before	O
doing	O
so	O
,	O
it	O
attempted	O
unsuccessful	O
motions	O
to	O
disregard	O
the	O
jury	O
verdict	O
,	O
and	O
then	O
to	O
hold	O
a	O
re-trial	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Oracle	B-Application
officially	O
filed	O
its	O
appeal	O
on	O
October	O
26	O
,	O
2016	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Oracle	B-Application
's	O
appeal	O
was	O
heard	O
by	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
Court	O
of	O
Appeals	O
for	O
the	O
Federal	O
Circuit	O
in	O
2017	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
On	O
March	O
27	O
,	O
2018	O
,	O
the	O
Court	O
ruled	O
in	O
favor	O
of	O
Oracle	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
"	O
It	O
is	O
undisputed	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
copied	O
verbatim	O
the	O
declaring	O
code	O
of	O
the	O
37	O
Java	B-Device
API	B-Application
packages	O
11,500	O
lines	O
of	O
Oracle	B-Application
’s	O
copyrighted	O
code	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
also	O
copied	O
the	O
SSO	O
of	O
the	O
Java	B-Device
API	B-Application
packages	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
(	O
Decision	O
p	O
.	O
10	O
)	O
"	O
It	O
is	O
also	O
established	O
and	O
Google	B-Application
recognizes	O
that	O
the	O
software	O
copied	O
is	O
creative	O
and	O
original	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Court	O
found	O
that	O
as	O
a	O
matter	O
of	O
law	O
,	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
use	O
of	O
Java	B-Device
could	O
not	O
have	O
fallen	O
within	O
fair	O
use	O
,	O
even	O
if	O
all	O
factual	O
matters	O
decided	O
by	O
the	O
jury	O
had	O
been	O
in	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
favor	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Appeals	O
Court	O
found	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
use	O
of	O
API	B-Application
code	O
declarations	O
had	O
not	O
met	O
any	O
of	O
the	O
four	O
current	O
criteria	O
for	O
fair	O
use	O
,	O
but	O
was	O
merely	O
untransformed	O
reuse	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
was	O
not	O
minimal	O
,	O
since	O
it	O
was	O
agreed	O
that	O
only	O
170	O
lines	O
of	O
the	O
11,500	O
lines	O
copied	O
were	O
needed	O
for	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
purposes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
was	O
not	O
within	O
any	O
example	O
of	O
transformation	O
,	O
nor	O
intended	O
to	O
permit	O
third	O
party	O
interoperability	O
,	O
since	O
Google	B-Application
had	O
made	O
no	O
substantial	O
efforts	O
to	O
use	O
them	O
for	O
the	O
purpose	O
of	O
third	O
party	O
interoperability	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
(	O
In	O
fact	O
it	O
found	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
had	O
tried	O
to	O
prevent	O
interoperability	O
with	O
other	O
Java	B-Device
and	O
had	O
previously	O
been	O
refused	O
a	O
license	O
by	O
Sun	O
for	O
that	O
reason	O
.	O
)	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
was	O
not	O
transformative	O
in	O
the	O
sense	O
of	O
a	O
new	O
platform	O
either	O
,	O
since	O
other	O
Java	B-Device
smartphones	O
predated	O
Android	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
was	O
plausible	O
that	O
the	O
use	O
had	O
harmed	O
Sun/Oracle	O
–	O
perhaps	O
to	O
a	O
great	O
extent	O
if	O
Oracle	B-Application
were	O
to	O
be	O
believed	O
–	O
since	O
as	O
a	O
result	O
,	O
vendors	O
began	O
expecting	O
Oracle	B-Application
to	O
compete	O
on	O
price	O
with	O
a	O
freely	O
available	O
derivative	O
of	O
its	O
own	O
language	O
,	O
and	O
to	O
require	O
very	O
steep	O
discounts	O
and	O
undesired	O
contractual	O
terms	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Therefore	O
,	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
use	O
of	O
the	O
Java	B-Language
code	I-Language
and	O
APIs	B-Application
failed	O
to	O
meet	O
all	O
four	O
of	O
the	O
currently	O
accepted	O
criteria	O
under	O
which	O
fair	O
use	O
would	O
be	O
possible	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Instead	O
,	O
the	O
Court	O
found	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
purpose	O
had	O
been	O
to	O
enhance	O
its	O
nascent	O
Android	B-Application
platform	I-Application
's	O
attractiveness	O
to	O
existing	O
developers	O
,	O
who	O
were	O
often	O
familiar	O
with	O
Java	B-Device
,	O
and	O
to	O
avoid	O
the	O
"	O
drudgery	O
"	O
of	O
rewriting	O
the	O
code	O
(	O
which	O
they	O
could	O
have	O
done	O
)	O
needed	O
to	O
implement	O
the	O
170	O
lines	O
of	O
API	B-Application
detail	O
which	O
were	O
indeed	O
required	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Court	O
found	O
that	O
"	O
The	O
fact	O
that	O
Android	B-Application
is	O
free	O
of	O
charge	O
does	O
not	O
make	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
use	O
of	O
the	O
Java	B-Device
API	B-Application
packages	O
noncommercial	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
purpose	O
was	O
commercial	O
,	O
the	O
established	O
historical	O
facts	O
by	O
the	O
jury	O
did	O
not	O
satisfy	O
any	O
of	O
the	O
criteria	O
for	O
fair	O
use	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
Court	O
remanded	O
the	O
case	O
back	O
to	O
the	O
District	O
Court	O
of	O
the	O
Northern	O
District	O
of	O
California	O
to	O
determine	O
the	O
amount	O
of	O
damage	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
should	O
pay	O
Oracle	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Google	B-Application
filed	O
a	O
petition	O
for	O
writ	O
of	O
certiorari	O
with	O
the	O
Supreme	O
Court	O
of	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
in	O
January	O
2019	O
to	O
challenge	O
the	O
two	O
rulings	O
that	O
were	O
made	O
by	O
the	O
appeals	O
court	O
in	O
Oracle	B-Application
's	O
favor	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
its	O
petition	O
,	O
Google	B-Application
centered	O
its	O
case	O
on	O
whether	O
copyright	O
extends	O
to	O
a	O
software	O
interface	O
like	O
an	O
API	B-Application
,	O
and	O
whether	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
the	O
Java	B-Device
API	B-Application
by	O
Google	B-Application
fell	O
within	O
fair	O
use	O
as	O
found	O
at	O
the	O
jury	O
trials	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Trump	O
administration	O
backed	O
Oracle	B-Application
and	O
urged	O
the	O
Court	O
to	O
deny	O
certiorari	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Microsoft	O
,	O
Mozilla	O
Corporation	O
,	O
Red	O
Hat	O
Inc.	O
,	O
and	O
others	O
filed	O
amicus	O
briefs	O
in	O
support	O
of	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
position	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
IBM	O
,	O
the	O
Computer	O
&	O
Communications	O
Industry	O
Association	O
,	O
the	O
Internet	O
Association	O
,	O
the	O
Auto	O
Care	O
Association	O
,	O
and	O
a	O
collective	O
group	O
of	O
over	O
150	O
academics	O
and	O
computer	O
professionals	O
also	O
filed	O
briefs	O
supporting	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
stance	O
,	O
cautioning	O
that	O
a	O
decision	O
in	O
favor	O
of	O
Oracle	B-Application
would	O
hurt	O
the	O
computing	O
world	O
as	O
a	O
whole	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
the	O
Supreme	O
Court	O
postponed	O
its	O
March	O
argument	O
session	O
on	O
March	O
16	O
in	O
light	O
of	O
concerns	O
surrounding	O
COVID-19	O
,	O
and	O
later	O
announced	O
that	O
Google	B-Language
v	I-Language
.	I-Language
Oracle	I-Language
was	O
one	O
of	O
several	O
cases	O
from	O
the	O
2019	O
–	O
20	O
term	O
to	O
be	O
postponed	O
until	O
the	O
first	O
week	O
of	O
the	O
2020	O
–	O
21	O
term	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Court	O
observers	O
found	O
that	O
while	O
the	O
Justices	O
seemed	O
to	O
side	O
with	O
Oracle	B-Application
on	O
the	O
copyright	O
arguments	O
,	O
they	O
also	O
took	O
deference	O
to	O
the	O
arguments	O
presented	O
by	O
Microsoft	O
,	O
who	O
had	O
taken	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
side	O
on	O
the	O
case	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Microsoft	O
argued	O
in	O
an	O
amicus	O
brief	O
that	O
ruling	O
in	O
Oracle	B-Application
's	O
favor	O
could	O
upend	O
the	O
software	O
industry	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Several	O
questions	O
focused	O
on	O
how	O
APIs	B-Application
fell	O
within	O
the	O
idea	O
–	O
expression	O
distinction	O
of	O
copyright	O
and	O
if	O
the	O
merger	O
doctrine	O
would	O
apply	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
a	O
6	O
–	O
2	O
majority	O
,	O
the	O
Court	O
ruled	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
use	O
of	O
the	O
Java	B-Device
APIs	B-Application
was	O
within	O
the	O
bounds	O
of	O
fair	O
use	O
,	O
reversing	O
the	O
Federal	O
Circuit	O
Appeals	O
Court	O
ruling	O
and	O
remanding	O
the	O
case	O
for	O
further	O
hearing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Breyer	O
's	O
opinion	O
began	O
with	O
the	O
assumption	O
that	O
the	O
APIs	B-Application
may	O
be	O
copyrightable	O
,	O
and	O
thus	O
proceeded	O
with	O
a	O
review	O
of	O
the	O
four	O
factors	O
that	O
contributed	O
to	O
fair	O
use	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
nature	O
of	O
the	O
copyrighted	O
work	O
:	O
Breyer	O
's	O
analysis	O
identified	O
that	O
APIs	B-Application
served	O
as	O
declaring	O
code	O
rather	O
than	O
implementation	O
,	O
and	O
that	O
in	O
context	O
of	O
copyright	O
,	O
it	O
served	O
an	O
"	O
organization	O
function	O
"	O
similar	O
to	O
the	O
Dewey	O
Decimal	O
System	O
,	O
in	O
which	O
fair	O
use	O
is	O
more	O
applicable	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
purpose	O
and	O
character	O
of	O
the	O
use	O
:	O
Breyer	O
stated	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
took	O
and	O
transformed	O
the	O
Java	B-Device
APIs	B-Application
"	O
to	O
expand	O
the	O
use	O
and	O
usefulness	O
of	O
Android-based	O
smartphones	O
"	O
which	O
"creat[ed]	O
a	O
new	O
platform	O
that	O
could	O
be	O
readily	O
used	O
by	O
programmers	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Breyer	O
also	O
wrote	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
limited	O
to	O
using	O
the	O
Java	B-Device
APIs	B-Application
"	O
as	O
needed	O
to	O
include	O
tasks	O
that	O
would	O
be	O
useful	O
in	O
smartphone	O
programs	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
amount	O
and	O
substantiality	O
of	O
the	O
copyrighted	O
material	O
:	O
Breyer	O
said	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
only	O
used	O
about	O
0.4	O
%	O
of	O
the	O
total	O
Java	B-Language
source	I-Language
code	I-Language
and	O
was	O
minimal	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
On	O
the	O
question	O
of	O
substantiality	O
,	O
Breyer	O
wrote	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
did	O
not	O
copy	O
the	O
code	O
that	O
was	O
at	O
the	O
heart	O
of	O
how	O
Java	B-Device
was	O
implemented	O
,	O
and	O
that	O
"	O
Google	B-Application
copied	O
those	O
lines	O
not	O
because	O
of	O
their	O
creativity	O
,	O
their	O
beauty	O
,	O
or	O
even	O
(	O
in	O
a	O
sense	O
)	O
because	O
of	O
their	O
purpose	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
copied	O
them	O
because	O
programmers	O
had	O
already	O
learned	O
to	O
work	O
with	O
[	O
Java	O
SE ]	O
,	O
and	O
it	O
would	O
have	O
been	O
difficult	O
…	O
to	O
attract	O
programmers	O
to	O
…	O
Android	B-Application
…	O
without	O
them.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
Breyer	O
said	O
that	O
at	O
the	O
time	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
copied	O
the	O
Java	B-Device
APIs	B-Application
,	O
it	O
was	O
not	O
clear	O
if	O
Android	B-Application
would	O
become	O
successful	O
,	O
and	O
should	O
not	O
be	O
considered	O
as	O
a	O
replacement	O
for	O
Java	B-Device
but	O
as	O
a	O
product	O
operating	O
on	O
a	O
different	O
platform	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Breyer	O
further	O
stated	O
that	O
if	O
they	O
had	O
found	O
for	O
Oracle	B-Application
,	O
it	O
"	O
would	O
risk	O
harm	O
to	O
the	O
public	O
"	O
,	O
as	O
"	O
Oracle	B-Application
alone	O
would	O
hold	O
the	O
key	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
result	O
could	O
well	O
prove	O
highly	O
profitable	O
to	O
Oracle	B-Application
(	O
or	O
other	O
firms	O
holding	O
a	O
copyright	O
in	O
computer	O
interfaces	O
)	O
...	O
 [ but ] 	O
the	O
lock	O
would	O
interfere	O
with	O
,	O
not	O
further	O
,	O
copyright	O
's	O
basic	O
creativity	O
objectives.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
Breyer	O
determined	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
use	O
of	O
the	O
APIs	B-Application
had	O
met	O
all	O
four	O
factors	O
,	O
and	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
used	O
"	O
only	O
what	O
was	O
needed	O
to	O
allow	O
users	O
to	O
put	O
their	O
accrued	O
talents	O
to	O
work	O
in	O
a	O
new	O
and	O
transformative	O
program	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Hence	O
,	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
copying	O
did	O
not	O
violate	O
the	O
copyright	O
law.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
conclusion	O
rendered	O
the	O
need	O
to	O
evaluate	O
the	O
copyright	O
of	O
the	O
API	B-Application
unnecessary	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Thomas	O
further	O
stated	O
that	O
in	O
his	O
own	O
fair	O
use	O
analysis	O
that	O
"	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
use	O
of	O
that	O
copyrighted	O
code	O
was	O
anything	O
but	O
fair	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Google	B-Language
v	I-Language
.	I-Language
Oracle	I-Language
was	O
a	O
closely	O
watched	O
case	O
by	O
the	O
tech	O
industry	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
ruling	O
favoring	O
Oracle	B-Application
could	O
have	O
had	O
significant	O
effects	O
on	O
past	O
and	O
future	O
software	O
development	O
given	O
the	O
prolific	O
use	O
of	O
APIs	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Opponents	O
of	O
the	O
Federal	O
Circuit	O
's	O
ruling	O
,	O
including	O
Google	B-Application
and	O
other	O
developers	O
of	O
Android-based	O
software	O
,	O
had	O
raised	O
several	O
concerns	O
including	O
the	O
impact	O
on	O
interoperability	O
,	O
software	O
innovation	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
potential	O
for	O
bad	O
actors	O
to	O
pick	O
up	O
the	O
rights	O
to	O
old	O
software	O
and	O
file	O
claims	O
against	O
companies	O
who	O
built	O
their	O
software	O
on	O
what	O
were	O
assumed	O
to	O
be	O
open	O
standards	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
If	O
APIs	B-Application
became	O
subject	O
to	O
copyright	O
protection	O
,	O
it	O
is	O
believed	O
that	O
companies	O
would	O
need	O
to	O
implement	O
deliberately	O
incompatible	O
standards	O
to	O
protect	O
themselves	O
from	O
the	O
risk	O
of	O
complex	O
litigation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Industry	O
and	O
legal	O
experts	O
stated	O
an	O
Oracle	B-Application
victory	O
could	O
have	O
created	O
a	O
chilling	O
effect	O
in	O
software	O
development	O
,	O
with	O
copyright	O
holders	O
using	O
the	O
copyright	O
on	O
APIs	B-Application
to	O
prevent	O
their	O
use	O
in	O
developing	O
interoperable	O
alternatives	O
through	O
reverse	O
engineering	O
,	O
as	O
common	O
in	O
open	B-License
source	I-License
software	O
development	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
At	O
the	O
same	O
time	O
,	O
experts	O
cautioned	O
that	O
a	O
judgment	O
favoring	O
Google	B-Application
's	I-Application
position	O
may	O
weaken	O
protection	O
for	O
copyright	O
for	O
software	B-Application
code	I-Application
developers	O
,	O
allowing	O
competitors	O
with	O
better	O
resources	O
to	O
develop	O
improved	O
products	O
from	O
smaller	O
firms	O
and	O
reduce	O
the	O
motive	O
for	O
innovation	O
within	O
the	O
industry	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
example	O
identified	O
by	O
Wired	O
is	O
the	O
Linux	B-Application
operating	I-Application
system	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
Linux	B-Application
is	O
fully	O
open	B-License
source	I-License
,	O
it	O
is	O
based	O
on	O
POSIX	O
,	O
a	O
set	O
of	O
APIs	B-Application
that	O
mimic	O
those	O
of	O
the	O
commercial	O
Unix	B-Application
operating	I-Application
system	I-Application
that	O
enable	O
high	O
levels	O
of	O
interoperability	O
for	O
developers	O
;	O
a	O
programmer	O
would	O
only	O
need	O
to	O
write	O
one	O
set	O
of	O
code	O
which	O
then	O
can	O
be	O
compiled	O
on	O
any	O
system	O
that	O
has	O
the	O
same	O
API	B-Application
,	O
even	O
if	O
the	O
computing	O
architecture	O
of	O
the	O
systems	O
are	O
different	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
If	O
case	O
law	O
favored	O
Oracle	B-Application
,	O
the	O
current	O
owners	O
of	O
Unix	B-Application
,	O
Micro	O
Focus	O
,	O
could	O
have	O
sought	O
damages	O
from	O
any	O
POSIX-based	O
operating	O
system	O
developer	O
intending	O
to	O
use	O
the	O
operating	O
system	O
for	O
commercial	O
use	O
.	O
</s>
