<s>
Free	B-License
and	I-License
open-source	I-License
software	I-License
(	O
FOSS	B-License
)	O
is	O
a	O
term	O
used	O
to	O
refer	O
to	O
groups	O
of	O
software	B-Application
consisting	O
of	O
both	O
free	B-Application
software	I-Application
and	O
open-source	B-Application
software	I-Application
where	O
anyone	O
is	O
freely	O
licensed	O
to	O
use	O
,	O
copy	O
,	O
study	O
,	O
and	O
change	O
the	B-Application
software	I-Application
in	O
any	O
way	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
source	O
code	O
is	O
openly	O
shared	O
so	O
that	O
people	O
are	O
encouraged	O
to	O
voluntarily	O
improve	O
the	O
design	O
of	O
the	B-Application
software	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
is	O
in	O
contrast	O
to	O
proprietary	B-Application
software	I-Application
,	O
where	O
the	B-Application
software	I-Application
is	O
under	O
restrictive	O
copyright	O
licensing	O
and	O
the	O
source	O
code	O
is	O
usually	O
hidden	O
from	O
the	O
users	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
FOSS	B-License
maintains	O
the	B-Application
software	I-Application
user	O
's	O
civil	O
liberty	O
rights	O
(	O
see	O
the	O
Four	O
Essential	O
Freedoms	O
,	O
below	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Other	O
benefits	O
of	O
using	O
FOSS	B-License
can	O
include	O
decreased	O
software	B-Application
costs	O
,	O
increased	O
security	O
and	O
stability	O
(	O
especially	O
in	O
regard	O
to	O
malware	O
)	O
,	O
protecting	O
privacy	O
,	O
education	O
,	O
and	O
giving	O
users	O
more	O
control	O
over	O
their	O
own	O
hardware	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Free	B-License
and	I-License
open-source	I-License
operating	O
systems	O
such	O
as	O
Linux	B-Operating_System
and	O
descendants	O
of	O
BSD	B-Operating_System
are	O
widely	O
utilized	O
today	O
,	O
powering	O
millions	O
of	O
servers	B-Application
,	O
desktops	B-Device
,	O
smartphones	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
Android	B-Application
)	O
,	O
and	O
other	O
devices	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Free-software	B-License
licenses	I-License
and	O
open-source	B-Application
licenses	O
are	O
used	O
by	O
many	B-License
software	I-License
packages	I-License
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
free	B-Application
software	I-Application
movement	O
and	O
the	O
open-source	B-Application
software	I-Application
movement	O
are	O
online	B-Application
social	I-Application
movements	I-Application
behind	O
widespread	O
production	O
and	O
adoption	O
of	O
FOSS	B-License
,	O
with	O
the	O
former	O
preferring	O
to	O
use	O
the	O
terms	O
FLOSS	B-License
or	O
free/libre	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
"	O
Free	B-License
and	I-License
open-source	I-License
software	I-License
"	O
(	O
FOSS	B-License
)	O
is	O
an	O
umbrella	O
term	O
for	O
software	B-Application
that	O
is	O
simultaneously	O
considered	O
both	O
free	B-Application
software	I-Application
and	O
open-source	B-Application
software	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
FOSS	B-License
(	O
free	B-License
and	I-License
open-source	I-License
software	I-License
)	O
allows	O
the	O
user	O
to	O
inspect	O
the	O
source	O
code	O
and	O
provides	O
a	O
high	O
level	O
of	O
control	O
of	O
the	B-Application
software	I-Application
's	O
functions	O
compared	O
to	O
proprietary	B-Application
software	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
term	O
"	O
free	B-Application
software	I-Application
"	O
does	O
not	O
refer	O
to	O
the	O
monetary	O
cost	O
of	O
the	B-Application
software	I-Application
at	O
all	O
,	O
but	O
rather	O
whether	O
the	O
license	O
maintains	O
the	B-Application
software	I-Application
user	O
's	O
civil	O
liberties	O
(	O
"	O
free	O
"	O
as	O
in	O
"	O
free	O
speech	O
,	O
"	O
not	O
as	O
in	O
"	O
free	O
beer	O
"	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
a	O
number	O
of	O
related	O
terms	O
and	O
abbreviations	O
for	O
free	B-License
and	I-License
open-source	I-License
software	I-License
(	O
FOSS	B-License
or	O
F/OSS	B-License
)	O
,	O
or	O
free/libre	B-License
and	I-License
open-source	I-License
software	I-License
(	O
FLOSS	B-License
or	O
F/LOSS	B-License
is	O
preferred	O
by	O
FSF	O
over	O
FOSS	B-License
,	O
while	O
free	O
or	O
free/libre	O
is	O
their	O
preferred	O
term	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Although	O
there	O
is	O
almost	O
a	O
complete	O
overlap	O
between	O
free-software	B-License
licenses	I-License
and	O
open-source-software	O
licenses	O
,	O
there	O
is	O
a	O
strong	O
philosophical	O
disagreement	O
between	O
the	O
advocates	O
of	O
these	O
two	O
positions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
terminology	O
of	O
FOSS	B-License
or	O
"	O
Free	B-License
and	I-License
Open-source	I-License
software	I-License
"	O
was	O
created	O
to	O
be	O
a	O
neutral	O
on	O
these	O
philosophical	O
disagreements	O
between	O
the	O
FSF	O
and	O
OSI	O
and	O
have	O
a	O
single	O
unified	O
term	O
that	O
could	O
refer	O
to	O
both	O
concepts	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Richard	O
Stallman	O
's	O
Free	B-Application
Software	I-Application
Definition	I-Application
,	O
adopted	O
by	O
the	B-Operating_System
Free	I-Operating_System
Software	I-Operating_System
Foundation	I-Operating_System
(	O
FSF	O
)	O
,	O
defines	O
free	B-Application
software	I-Application
as	O
a	O
matter	O
of	O
liberty	O
not	O
price	O
,	O
and	O
it	O
upholds	O
the	O
Four	O
Essential	O
Freedoms	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
earliest-known	O
publication	O
of	O
the	O
definition	O
of	O
his	O
free-software	B-Application
idea	O
was	O
in	O
the	O
February	O
1986	O
edition	O
of	O
the	O
FSF	O
's	O
now-discontinued	O
GNU	B-Operating_System
's	O
Bulletin	O
publication	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
canonical	O
source	O
for	O
the	O
document	O
is	O
in	O
the	O
philosophy	O
section	O
of	O
the	B-Application
GNU	I-Application
Project	I-Application
website	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
To	O
meet	O
the	O
definition	O
of	O
"	O
free	B-Application
software	I-Application
"	O
,	O
the	O
FSF	O
requires	O
the	B-Application
software	I-Application
's	O
licensing	O
respect	O
the	O
civil	O
liberties	O
/	O
human	O
rights	O
of	O
what	O
the	O
FSF	O
calls	O
the	B-Application
software	I-Application
user	O
's	O
"	O
Four	O
Essential	O
Freedoms	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	B-License
Open	I-License
Source	I-License
Definition	I-License
is	O
used	O
by	O
the	O
Open	O
Source	O
Initiative	O
(	O
OSI	O
)	O
to	O
determine	O
whether	O
a	O
software	B-Application
license	O
qualifies	O
for	O
the	O
organization	O
's	O
insignia	O
for	O
open-source	B-Application
software	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
definition	O
was	O
based	O
on	O
the	O
Debian	B-License
Free	I-License
Software	I-License
Guidelines	I-License
,	O
written	O
and	O
adapted	O
primarily	O
by	O
Bruce	O
Perens	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Perens	O
did	O
not	O
base	O
his	O
writing	O
on	O
the	O
Four	O
Essential	O
Freedoms	O
of	O
free	B-Application
software	I-Application
from	O
the	B-Operating_System
Free	I-Operating_System
Software	I-Operating_System
Foundation	I-Operating_System
,	O
which	O
were	O
only	O
later	O
available	O
on	O
the	O
web	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Perens	O
subsequently	O
stated	O
that	O
he	O
felt	O
Eric	O
Raymond	O
's	O
promotion	O
of	O
open-source	B-Application
unfairly	O
overshadowed	O
the	B-Operating_System
Free	I-Operating_System
Software	I-Operating_System
Foundation	I-Operating_System
's	O
efforts	O
and	O
reaffirmed	O
his	O
support	O
for	O
free	B-Application
software	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Software	B-Application
,	O
including	O
source	O
code	O
,	O
was	O
commonly	O
shared	O
by	O
individuals	O
who	O
used	O
computers	O
,	O
often	O
as	O
public	B-Application
domain	I-Application
software	I-Application
(	O
FOSS	B-License
is	O
not	O
the	O
same	O
as	O
public	B-Application
domain	I-Application
software	I-Application
,	O
as	O
public	B-Application
domain	I-Application
software	I-Application
does	O
not	O
contain	O
copyrights	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Most	O
companies	O
had	O
a	O
business	O
model	O
based	O
on	O
hardware	B-Architecture
sales	O
,	O
and	O
provided	O
or	O
bundled	O
software	B-Application
with	O
hardware	B-Architecture
,	O
free	O
of	O
charge	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
the	O
late	O
1960s	O
,	O
the	O
prevailing	O
business	O
model	O
around	O
software	B-Application
was	O
changing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
growing	O
and	O
evolving	O
software	B-Application
industry	I-Application
was	O
competing	O
with	O
the	O
hardware	B-Architecture
manufacturer	O
's	O
bundled	O
software	B-Application
products	I-Application
;	O
rather	O
than	O
funding	O
software	B-Application
development	O
from	O
hardware	B-Architecture
revenue	O
,	O
these	O
new	O
companies	O
were	O
selling	O
software	B-Application
directly	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Leased	O
machines	O
required	O
software	B-Application
support	O
while	O
providing	O
no	O
revenue	O
for	O
software	B-Application
,	O
and	O
some	O
customers	O
who	O
were	O
able	O
to	O
better	O
meet	O
their	O
own	O
needs	O
did	O
not	O
want	O
the	O
costs	O
of	O
software	B-Application
bundled	O
with	O
hardware	B-Architecture
product	O
costs	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
United	O
States	O
vs.	O
IBM	O
,	O
filed	O
January	O
17	O
,	O
1969	O
,	O
the	O
government	O
charged	O
that	O
bundled	O
software	B-Application
was	O
anticompetitive	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
some	O
software	B-Application
was	O
still	O
being	O
provided	O
without	O
monetary	O
cost	O
and	O
license	O
restriction	O
,	O
there	O
was	O
a	O
growing	O
amount	O
of	O
software	B-Application
that	O
was	O
only	O
at	O
a	O
monetary	O
cost	O
with	O
restricted	O
licensing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
1970s	O
and	O
early	O
1980s	O
,	O
some	O
parts	O
of	O
the	B-Application
software	I-Application
industry	O
began	O
using	O
technical	O
measures	O
(	O
such	O
as	O
distributing	O
only	O
binary	B-Application
copies	I-Application
of	O
computer	B-Application
programs	I-Application
)	O
to	O
prevent	O
computer	O
users	O
from	O
being	O
able	O
to	O
use	O
reverse	O
engineering	O
techniques	O
to	O
study	O
and	O
customize	O
software	B-Application
they	O
had	O
paid	O
for	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1980	O
,	O
the	O
copyright	O
law	O
was	O
extended	O
to	O
computer	B-Application
programs	I-Application
in	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
—	O
previously	O
,	O
computer	B-Application
programs	I-Application
could	O
be	O
considered	O
ideas	O
,	O
procedures	O
,	O
methods	O
,	O
systems	O
,	O
and	O
processes	O
,	O
which	O
are	O
not	O
copyrightable	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Early	O
on	O
,	O
closed-source	B-Application
software	I-Application
was	O
uncommon	O
until	O
the	O
mid-1970s	O
to	O
the	O
1980s	O
,	O
when	O
IBM	O
implemented	O
in	O
1983	O
an	O
"	O
object	O
code	O
only	O
"	O
policy	O
,	O
no	O
longer	O
distributing	O
source	O
code	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1983	O
,	O
Richard	O
Stallman	O
,	O
longtime	O
member	O
of	O
the	O
hacker	O
community	O
at	O
the	O
MIT	O
Artificial	O
Intelligence	O
Laboratory	O
,	O
announced	O
the	B-Application
GNU	I-Application
project	I-Application
,	O
saying	O
that	O
he	O
had	O
become	O
frustrated	O
with	O
the	O
effects	O
of	O
the	O
change	O
in	O
culture	O
of	O
the	O
computer	O
industry	O
and	O
its	O
users	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Software	B-Application
development	O
for	O
the	B-Operating_System
GNU	I-Operating_System
operating	I-Operating_System
system	I-Operating_System
began	O
in	O
January	O
1984	O
,	O
and	O
the	B-Operating_System
Free	I-Operating_System
Software	I-Operating_System
Foundation	I-Operating_System
(	O
FSF	O
)	O
was	O
founded	O
in	O
October	O
1985	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
article	O
outlining	O
the	O
project	O
and	O
its	O
goals	O
was	O
published	O
in	O
March	O
1985	O
titled	O
the	B-Application
GNU	I-Application
Manifesto	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
manifesto	O
included	O
significant	O
explanation	O
of	O
the	O
GNU	B-Operating_System
philosophy	O
,	O
Free	B-Application
Software	I-Application
Definition	I-Application
and	O
"	O
copyleft	B-License
"	O
ideas	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
FSF	O
takes	O
the	O
position	O
that	O
the	O
fundamental	O
issue	O
Free	B-Application
software	I-Application
addresses	O
is	O
an	O
ethical	O
one	O
—	O
to	O
ensure	O
software	B-Application
users	O
can	O
exercise	O
what	O
it	O
calls	O
"	O
The	O
Four	O
Essential	O
Freedoms	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Linux	B-Operating_System
kernel	I-Operating_System
,	O
created	O
by	O
Linus	O
Torvalds	O
,	O
was	O
released	O
as	O
freely	O
modifiable	O
source	O
code	O
in	O
1991	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Initially	O
,	O
Linux	B-Operating_System
was	O
not	O
released	O
under	O
either	O
a	O
Free	B-Application
software	I-Application
or	O
an	O
Open-source	B-Application
software	I-Application
license	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
with	O
version	O
0.12	O
in	O
February	O
1992	O
,	O
he	O
relicensed	O
the	O
project	O
under	O
the	O
GNU	B-License
General	I-License
Public	I-License
License	I-License
.	O
</s>
<s>
FreeBSD	B-Operating_System
and	O
NetBSD	B-Device
(	O
both	O
derived	O
from	O
386BSD	B-Operating_System
)	O
were	O
released	O
as	O
Free	B-Application
software	I-Application
when	O
the	O
USL	B-Operating_System
v	I-Operating_System
.	I-Operating_System
BSDi	I-Operating_System
lawsuit	O
was	O
settled	O
out	O
of	O
court	O
in	O
1993	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
OpenBSD	B-Operating_System
forked	B-Application
from	O
NetBSD	B-Device
in	O
1995	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Also	O
in	O
1995	O
,	O
The	O
Apache	B-Application
HTTP	I-Application
Server	I-Application
,	O
commonly	O
referred	O
to	O
as	O
Apache	B-Application
,	O
was	O
released	O
under	O
the	O
Apache	B-Application
License	I-Application
1.0	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1997	O
,	O
Eric	O
Raymond	O
published	O
The	O
Cathedral	O
and	O
the	O
Bazaar	O
,	O
a	O
reflective	O
analysis	O
of	O
the	O
hacker	O
community	O
and	O
Free	B-Application
software	I-Application
principles	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
paper	O
received	O
significant	O
attention	O
in	O
early	O
1998	O
,	O
and	O
was	O
one	O
factor	O
in	O
motivating	O
Netscape	O
Communications	O
Corporation	O
to	O
release	O
their	O
popular	O
Netscape	B-Protocol
Communicator	I-Protocol
Internet	O
suite	O
as	O
Free	B-Application
software	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
code	O
is	O
today	O
better	O
known	O
as	O
Mozilla	B-Application
Firefox	I-Application
and	O
Thunderbird	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Netscape	O
's	O
act	O
prompted	O
Raymond	O
and	O
others	O
to	O
look	O
into	O
how	O
to	O
bring	O
the	O
FSF	O
's	O
Free	B-Application
software	I-Application
ideas	O
and	O
perceived	O
benefits	O
to	O
the	O
commercial	O
software	B-Application
industry	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
They	O
concluded	O
that	O
FSF	O
's	O
social	O
activism	O
was	O
not	O
appealing	O
to	O
companies	O
like	O
Netscape	O
,	O
and	O
looked	O
for	O
a	O
way	O
to	O
rebrand	O
the	O
Free	B-Application
software	I-Application
movement	O
to	O
emphasize	O
the	O
business	O
potential	O
of	O
sharing	O
and	O
collaborating	O
on	O
software	B-Application
source	O
code	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
new	O
name	O
they	O
chose	O
was	O
"	O
Open-source	B-Application
"	O
,	O
and	O
quickly	O
Bruce	O
Perens	O
,	O
publisher	O
Tim	O
O'Reilly	O
,	O
Linus	O
Torvalds	O
,	O
and	O
others	O
signed	O
on	O
to	O
the	O
rebranding	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Open	O
Source	O
Initiative	O
was	O
founded	O
in	O
February	O
1998	O
to	O
encourage	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
the	O
new	O
term	O
and	O
evangelize	O
open-source	B-Application
principles	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
the	O
Open	O
Source	O
Initiative	O
sought	O
to	O
encourage	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
the	O
new	O
term	O
and	O
evangelize	O
the	O
principles	O
it	O
adhered	O
to	O
,	O
commercial	O
software	B-Application
vendors	O
found	O
themselves	O
increasingly	O
threatened	O
by	O
the	O
concept	O
of	O
freely	O
distributed	O
software	B-Application
and	O
universal	O
access	O
to	O
an	O
application	O
's	O
source	O
code	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
Microsoft	O
executive	O
publicly	O
stated	O
in	O
2001	O
that	O
"	O
Open-source	B-Application
is	O
an	O
intellectual	O
property	O
destroyer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
I	O
ca	O
n't	O
imagine	O
something	O
that	O
could	O
be	O
worse	O
than	O
this	O
for	O
the	B-Application
software	I-Application
business	O
and	O
the	O
intellectual-property	O
business.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
view	O
perfectly	O
summarizes	O
the	O
initial	O
response	O
to	O
FOSS	B-License
by	O
some	O
software	B-Application
corporations	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
many	O
years	O
FOSS	B-License
played	O
a	O
niche	O
role	O
outside	O
of	O
the	O
mainstream	O
of	O
private	O
software	B-Application
development	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
the	O
success	O
of	O
FOSS	B-License
Operating	O
Systems	O
such	O
as	O
Linux	B-Operating_System
,	O
BSD	B-Operating_System
and	O
the	O
companies	O
based	O
on	O
FOSS	B-License
such	O
as	O
Red	O
Hat	O
,	O
has	O
changed	O
the	B-Application
software	I-Application
industry	O
's	O
attitude	O
and	O
there	O
has	O
been	O
a	O
dramatic	O
shift	O
in	O
the	O
corporate	O
philosophy	O
concerning	O
its	O
development	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Users	O
of	O
FOSS	B-License
benefit	O
from	O
the	O
Four	O
Essential	O
Freedoms	O
to	O
make	O
unrestricted	O
use	O
of	O
,	O
and	O
to	O
study	O
,	O
copy	O
,	O
modify	O
,	O
and	O
redistribute	O
such	O
software	B-Application
with	O
or	O
without	O
modification	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
If	O
they	O
would	O
like	O
to	O
change	O
the	O
functionality	O
of	O
software	B-Application
they	O
can	O
bring	O
about	O
changes	O
to	O
the	O
code	O
and	O
,	O
if	O
they	O
wish	O
,	O
distribute	O
such	O
modified	O
versions	O
of	O
the	B-Application
software	I-Application
or	O
often	O
−	O
depending	O
on	O
the	B-Application
software	I-Application
's	O
decision	O
making	O
model	O
and	O
its	O
other	O
users	O
−	O
even	O
push	O
or	O
request	O
such	O
changes	O
to	O
be	O
made	O
via	O
updates	O
to	O
the	O
original	O
software	B-Application
.	I-Application
</s>
<s>
Manufacturers	O
of	O
proprietary	B-Application
,	O
closed-source	B-Application
software	I-Application
are	O
sometimes	O
pressured	O
to	O
building	O
in	O
backdoors	O
or	O
other	O
covert	O
,	O
undesired	O
features	O
into	O
their	O
software	B-Application
.	I-Application
</s>
<s>
Instead	O
of	O
having	O
to	O
trust	O
software	B-Application
vendors	O
,	O
users	O
of	O
FOSS	B-License
can	O
inspect	O
and	O
verify	O
the	O
source	O
code	O
themselves	O
and	O
can	O
put	O
trust	O
on	O
a	O
community	O
of	O
volunteers	O
and	O
users	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
proprietary	B-Application
code	O
is	O
typically	O
hidden	O
from	O
public	O
view	O
,	O
only	O
the	O
vendors	O
themselves	O
and	O
hackers	O
may	O
be	O
aware	O
of	O
any	O
vulnerabilities	O
in	O
them	O
while	O
FOSS	B-License
involves	O
as	O
many	O
people	O
as	O
possible	O
for	O
exposing	O
bugs	O
quickly	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
FOSS	B-License
is	O
often	O
free	O
of	O
charge	O
although	O
donations	O
are	O
often	O
encouraged	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
also	O
allows	O
users	O
to	O
better	O
test	O
and	O
compare	O
software	B-Application
.	I-Application
</s>
<s>
FOSS	B-License
allows	O
for	O
better	O
collaboration	O
among	O
various	O
parties	O
and	O
individuals	O
with	O
the	O
goal	O
of	O
developing	O
the	O
most	O
efficient	O
software	B-Application
for	O
its	O
users	O
or	O
use-cases	O
while	O
proprietary	B-Application
software	I-Application
is	O
typically	O
meant	O
to	O
generate	O
profits	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Furthermore	O
,	O
in	O
many	O
cases	O
more	O
organizations	O
and	O
individuals	O
contribute	O
to	O
such	O
projects	O
than	O
to	O
proprietary	B-Application
software	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
has	O
been	O
shown	O
that	O
technical	O
superiority	O
is	O
typically	O
the	O
primary	O
reason	O
why	O
companies	O
choose	O
open	B-Application
source	I-Application
software	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
According	O
to	O
Linus	B-Application
's	I-Application
law	I-Application
the	O
more	O
people	O
who	O
can	O
see	O
and	O
test	O
a	O
set	O
of	O
code	O
,	O
the	O
more	O
likely	O
any	O
flaws	O
will	O
be	O
caught	O
and	O
fixed	O
quickly	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Having	O
a	O
grouping	O
of	O
full-time	O
professionals	O
behind	O
a	O
commercial	O
product	O
can	O
in	O
some	O
cases	O
be	O
superior	O
to	O
FOSS	B-License
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
however	O
assumes	O
that	O
such	O
malicious	O
hackers	O
are	O
more	O
effective	O
than	O
white	O
hat	O
hackers	O
which	O
responsibly	O
disclose	O
or	O
help	O
fix	O
the	O
vulnerabilities	O
,	O
that	O
no	O
code	O
leaks	O
or	O
exfiltrations	O
occur	O
and	O
that	O
reverse	O
engineering	O
of	O
proprietary	B-Application
code	O
is	O
a	O
hindrance	O
of	O
significance	O
for	O
malicious	O
hackers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Sometimes	O
,	O
FOSS	B-License
is	O
not	O
compatible	O
with	O
proprietary	B-Application
hardware	B-Architecture
or	O
specific	O
software	B-Application
.	I-Application
</s>
<s>
This	O
is	O
often	O
due	O
to	O
manufacturers	O
obstructing	O
FOSS	B-License
such	O
as	O
by	O
not	O
disclosing	O
the	O
interfaces	B-Application
or	O
other	O
specifications	O
needed	O
for	O
members	O
of	O
the	O
FOSS	B-License
movement	O
to	O
write	O
drivers	B-Application
for	O
their	O
hardware	B-Architecture
-	O
for	O
instance	O
as	O
they	O
wish	O
customers	O
to	O
run	O
only	O
their	O
own	O
proprietary	B-Application
software	I-Application
or	O
as	O
they	O
might	O
benefit	O
from	O
partnerships	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
FOSS	B-License
can	O
be	O
superior	O
to	O
proprietary	B-Application
equivalents	O
in	O
terms	O
of	O
software	B-Application
features	O
and	O
stability	O
,	O
in	O
many	O
cases	O
it	O
has	O
more	O
unfixed	O
bugs	O
and	O
missing	O
features	O
when	O
compared	O
to	O
similar	O
commercial	O
software	B-Application
.	I-Application
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
unlike	O
close-sourced	O
software	B-Application
,	O
improvements	O
can	O
be	O
made	O
by	O
anyone	O
who	O
has	O
the	O
motivation	O
,	O
time	O
and	O
skill	O
to	O
do	O
so	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
common	O
obstacle	O
in	O
FOSS	B-License
development	O
is	O
the	O
lack	O
of	O
access	O
to	O
some	O
common	O
official	O
standards	O
,	O
due	O
to	O
costly	O
royalties	O
or	O
required	O
non-disclosure	O
agreements	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
for	O
the	O
DVD-Video	O
format	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
is	O
often	O
less	O
certainty	O
of	O
FOSS	B-License
projects	O
gaining	O
the	O
required	O
resources	O
and	O
participation	O
for	O
continued	O
development	O
than	O
commercial	O
software	B-Application
backed	O
by	O
companies	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
companies	O
also	O
often	O
abolish	O
projects	O
for	O
being	O
unprofitable	O
,	O
yet	O
large	O
companies	O
may	O
rely	O
on	O
,	O
and	O
hence	O
co-develop	O
,	O
open	B-Application
source	I-Application
software	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
On	O
the	O
other	O
hand	O
,	O
if	O
the	O
vendor	O
of	O
proprietary	B-Application
software	I-Application
ceases	O
development	O
,	O
there	O
are	O
no	O
alternatives	O
;	O
whereas	O
with	O
FOSS	B-License
,	O
any	O
user	O
who	O
needs	O
it	O
still	O
has	O
the	O
right	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
source-code	O
,	O
to	O
continue	O
to	O
develop	O
it	O
themself	O
,	O
or	O
pay	O
a	O
3rd	O
party	O
to	O
do	O
so	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
the	O
FOSS	B-License
operating	O
system	O
distributions	O
of	O
Linux	B-Operating_System
has	O
a	O
lower	O
market	O
share	O
of	O
end	O
users	O
there	O
are	O
also	O
fewer	O
applications	O
available	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
CountryDescriptionBrazilIn	O
2006	O
,	O
the	O
Brazilian	O
government	O
has	O
simultaneously	O
encouraged	O
the	O
distribution	O
of	O
cheap	O
computers	O
running	O
Linux	B-Operating_System
throughout	O
its	O
poorer	O
communities	O
by	O
subsidizing	O
their	O
purchase	O
with	O
tax	O
breaks.EcuadorIn	O
April	O
2008	O
,	O
Ecuador	O
passed	O
a	O
similar	O
law	O
,	O
Decree	O
1014	O
,	O
designed	O
to	O
migrate	O
the	O
public	O
sector	O
to	O
Libre	B-Application
Software	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Estebanmendieta.com	O
,	O
Decree	O
1014FranceIn	O
March	O
2009	O
,	O
the	O
French	O
Gendarmerie	O
Nationale	O
announced	O
it	O
will	O
totally	O
switch	O
to	O
Ubuntu	B-Operating_System
by	O
2015	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Gendarmerie	O
began	O
its	O
transition	O
to	O
open	B-Application
source	I-Application
software	I-Application
in	O
2005	O
when	O
it	O
replaced	O
Microsoft	O
Office	O
with	O
OpenOffice.org	O
across	O
the	O
entire	O
organization	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
September	O
2012	O
,	O
the	O
French	O
Prime	O
Minister	O
laid	O
down	O
a	O
set	O
of	O
action-oriented	O
recommendations	O
about	O
using	O
open-source	B-Application
in	O
the	O
French	O
public	O
administration	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Use	O
of	O
the	O
open-source	B-Application
software	I-Application
in	O
the	O
administration	O
This	O
document	O
stops	O
some	O
orientations	O
like	O
establishing	O
an	O
actual	O
convergence	O
on	O
open-source	B-Application
stubs	O
,	O
activating	O
a	O
network	O
of	O
expertise	O
about	O
converging	O
stubs	O
,	O
improving	O
the	O
support	O
of	O
open-source	B-Application
software	I-Application
,	O
contributing	O
to	O
selected	O
stubs	O
,	O
following	O
the	O
big	O
communities	O
,	O
spreading	O
alternatives	O
to	O
the	O
main	O
commercial	O
solutions	O
,	O
tracing	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
open-source	B-Application
and	O
its	O
effects	O
,	O
developing	O
the	O
culture	O
of	O
use	O
of	O
the	O
open-source	B-Application
licenses	O
in	O
the	O
developments	O
of	O
public	O
information	O
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
of	O
the	O
aim	O
of	O
this	O
experts	O
groups	O
is	O
also	O
to	O
establish	O
lists	O
of	O
recommended	O
open-source	B-Application
software	I-Application
to	O
use	O
in	O
the	O
French	O
public	O
administration	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Interministerial	O
base	O
of	O
open-source	B-Application
applicationsGermanyIn	O
the	O
German	O
City	O
of	O
Munich	O
,	O
conversion	O
of	O
15,000	O
PCs	O
and	O
laptops	O
from	O
Microsoft	O
Windows-based	O
operating	O
systems	O
to	O
a	O
Debian-based	O
Linux	B-Operating_System
environment	O
called	O
LiMux	O
spanned	O
the	O
ten	O
years	O
of	O
2003	O
to	O
2013	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
After	O
successful	O
completion	O
of	O
the	O
project	O
,	O
more	O
than	O
80%	O
of	O
all	O
computers	O
were	O
running	O
Linux	B-Operating_System
.	O
</s>
<s>
But	O
in	O
2020	O
,	O
Munich	O
decided	O
to	O
shift	O
back	O
from	O
Microsoft	O
to	O
Linux	B-Operating_System
again	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2022	O
Germany	O
launched	O
Open	B-Application
CoDE	I-Application
,	O
its	O
own	O
FOSS	B-License
repository	O
and	O
forum.IndiaThe	O
Government	O
of	O
Kerala	O
,	O
India	O
,	O
announced	O
its	O
official	O
support	O
for	O
FOSS	B-License
software	B-Application
in	O
its	O
State	O
IT	O
Policy	O
of	O
2001	O
,	O
which	O
was	O
formulated	O
after	O
the	O
first-ever	O
Free	B-Application
software	I-Application
conference	O
in	O
India	O
,	O
Freedom	O
First	O
!,	O
held	O
in	O
July	O
2001	O
in	O
Trivandrum	O
,	O
the	O
capital	O
of	O
Kerala	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2009	O
,	O
Government	O
of	O
Kerala	O
started	O
the	O
International	O
Centre	O
for	O
Free	B-Application
and	I-Application
Open	I-Application
Source	I-Application
Software	I-Application
(	O
ICFOSS	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
March	O
2015	O
the	O
Indian	O
government	O
announced	O
a	O
policy	O
on	O
adoption	O
of	O
FOSS.ItalyThe	O
Italian	O
military	O
is	O
transitioning	O
to	O
LibreOffice	O
and	O
the	O
OpenDocument	B-Application
Format	I-Application
(	O
ODF	B-Application
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
E-learning	O
military	O
platform.JordanIn	O
January	O
2010	O
,	O
the	O
Government	O
of	O
Jordan	O
announced	O
a	O
partnership	O
with	O
Ingres	O
Corporation	O
(	O
now	O
named	O
Actian	O
)	O
,	O
an	O
open	O
source	O
database	B-Application
management	I-Application
company	O
based	O
in	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
,	O
to	O
promote	O
open-source	B-Application
software	I-Application
use	O
,	O
starting	O
with	O
university	O
systems	O
in	O
Jordan.MalaysiaMalaysia	O
launched	O
the	O
"	O
Malaysian	O
Public	O
Sector	O
Open	B-Application
Source	I-Application
Software	I-Application
Program	O
"	O
,	O
saving	O
millions	O
on	O
proprietary	B-Application
software	I-Application
licenses	I-Application
until	O
2008.PeruIn	O
2005	O
the	O
Government	O
of	O
Peru	O
voted	O
to	O
adopt	O
open	O
source	O
across	O
all	O
its	O
bodies	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
"	O
UgandaIn	O
September	O
2014	O
,	O
the	O
Uganda	O
National	O
Information	O
Technology	O
Authority	O
(	O
NITA-U	O
)	O
announced	O
a	O
call	O
for	O
feedback	O
on	O
an	O
Open	O
Source	O
Strategy	O
&	O
Policy	O
at	O
a	O
workshop	O
in	O
conjunction	O
with	O
the	O
ICT	O
Association	O
of	O
Uganda	O
(	O
ICTAU	O
)	O
.United	O
StatesIn	O
February	O
2009	O
,	O
the	O
White	B-Application
House	I-Application
moved	O
its	O
website	O
to	O
Linux	B-Operating_System
servers	B-Application
using	O
Drupal	B-Application
for	O
content	O
management	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
August	O
2016	O
,	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
government	O
announced	O
a	O
new	O
federal	O
source	O
code	O
policy	O
which	O
mandates	O
that	O
at	O
least	O
20%	O
of	O
custom	O
source	O
code	O
developed	O
by	O
or	O
for	O
any	O
agency	O
of	O
the	O
federal	O
government	O
be	O
released	O
as	O
open-source	B-Application
software	I-Application
(	O
OSS	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
also	O
provides	O
the	O
"	O
primary	O
discoverability	O
portal	O
for	O
custom-developed	O
software	B-Application
intended	O
both	O
for	O
Government-wide	O
reuse	O
and	O
for	O
release	O
as	O
OSS	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2017	O
,	O
the	O
European	O
Commission	O
stated	O
that	O
"	O
EU	O
institutions	O
should	O
become	O
open	B-Application
source	I-Application
software	I-Application
users	O
themselves	O
,	O
even	O
more	O
than	O
they	O
already	O
are	O
"	O
and	O
listed	O
open	B-Application
source	I-Application
software	I-Application
as	O
one	O
of	O
the	O
nine	O
key	O
drivers	B-Application
of	O
innovation	O
,	O
together	O
with	O
big	B-Application
data	I-Application
,	O
mobility	O
,	O
cloud	B-Architecture
computing	I-Architecture
and	O
the	B-Operating_System
internet	I-Operating_System
of	I-Operating_System
things	I-Operating_System
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2020	O
the	O
European	O
Commission	O
adopted	O
its	O
Open	O
Source	O
Strategy	O
2020-2023	O
,	O
including	O
encouraging	O
sharing	O
and	O
reuse	O
of	O
software	B-Application
and	O
publishing	O
Commission	O
's	O
source	O
code	O
as	O
key	O
objectives	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Among	O
concrete	O
actions	O
there	O
is	O
also	O
to	O
set	O
up	O
an	O
Open	O
Source	O
Programme	O
Office	O
in	O
2020	O
and	O
in	O
2022	O
it	O
launched	O
its	O
own	O
FOSS	B-License
repository	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
software	B-Application
(	O
2021/C	O
495	O
I/01	O
)	O
was	O
adopted	O
,	O
under	O
which	O
,	O
as	O
a	O
general	O
principle	O
,	O
the	O
European	O
Commission	O
may	O
release	O
software	B-Application
under	O
EUPL	O
or	O
another	O
FOSS	B-License
license	O
,	O
if	O
more	O
appropriate	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
copyright	O
is	O
the	O
primary	O
legal	O
mechanism	O
that	O
FOSS	B-License
authors	O
use	O
to	O
ensure	O
license	O
compliance	O
for	O
their	O
software	B-Application
,	O
other	O
mechanisms	O
such	O
as	O
legislation	O
,	O
patents	O
,	O
and	O
trademarks	O
have	O
implications	O
as	O
well	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
response	O
to	O
legal	O
issues	O
with	O
patents	O
and	O
the	O
Digital	O
Millennium	O
Copyright	O
Act	O
(	O
DMCA	O
)	O
,	O
the	B-Operating_System
Free	I-Operating_System
Software	I-Operating_System
Foundation	I-Operating_System
released	O
version	O
3	O
of	O
its	O
GNU	B-License
Public	I-License
License	I-License
(	O
GNU	B-Operating_System
GPLv3	O
)	O
in	O
2007	O
that	O
explicitly	O
addressed	O
the	O
DMCA	O
and	O
patent	O
rights	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
After	O
the	O
development	O
of	O
the	O
GNU	B-Operating_System
GPLv3	O
in	O
2007	O
,	O
the	O
FSF	O
(	O
as	O
the	O
copyright	O
holder	O
of	O
many	O
pieces	O
of	O
the	B-Operating_System
GNU	I-Operating_System
system	I-Operating_System
)	O
updated	O
many	O
of	O
the	O
GNU	B-Operating_System
programs	O
 '	O
licenses	O
from	O
GPLv2	O
to	O
GPLv3	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
On	O
the	O
other	O
hand	O
,	O
the	O
adoption	O
of	O
the	O
new	O
GPL	B-License
version	O
was	O
heavily	O
discussed	O
in	O
the	O
FOSS	B-License
ecosystem	O
,	O
several	O
projects	O
decided	O
against	O
upgrading	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
instance	O
the	O
Linux	B-Operating_System
kernel	I-Operating_System
,	O
the	O
BusyBox	B-Application
project	O
,	O
AdvFS	B-Application
,	O
Blender	B-Application
,	O
and	O
the	O
VLC	B-Application
media	I-Application
player	I-Application
decided	O
against	O
adopting	O
the	O
GPLv3	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Apple	O
,	O
a	O
user	O
of	O
GCC	B-Application
and	O
a	O
heavy	O
user	O
of	O
both	O
DRM	O
and	O
patents	O
,	O
switched	O
the	O
compiler	O
in	O
its	O
Xcode	B-Operating_System
IDE	O
from	O
GCC	B-Application
to	O
Clang	B-Application
,	O
which	O
is	O
another	O
FOSS	B-License
compiler	O
but	O
is	O
under	O
a	O
permissive	B-License
license	I-License
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Samba	B-Language
project	O
also	O
switched	O
to	O
GPLv3	O
,	O
so	O
Apple	O
replaced	O
Samba	B-Language
in	O
their	O
software	B-Application
suite	O
by	O
a	O
closed-source	B-Application
,	O
proprietary	B-Application
software	I-Application
alternative	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Leemhuis	O
criticizes	O
the	O
prioritization	O
of	O
skilled	O
developers	O
who	O
−	O
instead	O
of	O
fixing	O
issues	O
in	O
already	O
popular	O
open-source	B-Application
applications	I-Application
and	O
desktop	O
environments	O
−	O
create	O
new	O
,	O
mostly	O
redundant	O
software	B-Application
to	O
gain	O
fame	O
and	O
fortune	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
He	O
also	O
criticizes	O
notebook	O
manufacturers	O
for	O
optimizing	O
their	O
own	O
products	O
only	O
privately	O
or	O
creating	O
workarounds	B-Application
instead	O
of	O
helping	O
fix	O
the	O
actual	O
causes	O
of	O
the	O
many	O
issues	O
with	O
Linux	B-Operating_System
on	O
notebooks	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
unnecessary	O
power	O
consumption	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Mergers	O
have	O
affected	O
major	O
open-source	B-Application
software	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Sun	O
Microsystems	O
(	O
Sun	O
)	O
acquired	O
MySQL	B-Application
AB	O
,	O
owner	O
of	O
the	O
popular	O
open-source	B-Application
MySQL	B-Application
database	O
,	O
in	O
2008	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Oracle	B-Application
in	O
turn	O
purchased	O
Sun	O
in	O
January	O
2010	O
,	O
acquiring	O
their	O
copyrights	O
,	O
patents	O
,	O
and	O
trademarks	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Thus	O
,	O
Oracle	B-Application
became	O
the	O
owner	O
of	O
both	O
the	O
most	O
popular	O
proprietary	B-Application
database	O
and	O
the	O
most	O
popular	O
open-source	B-Application
database	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Oracle	B-Application
's	O
attempts	O
to	O
commercialize	O
the	O
open-source	B-Application
MySQL	B-Application
database	O
have	O
raised	O
concerns	O
in	O
the	O
FOSS	B-License
community	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Partly	O
in	O
response	O
to	O
uncertainty	O
about	O
the	O
future	O
of	O
MySQL	B-Application
,	O
the	O
FOSS	B-License
community	O
forked	B-Application
the	O
project	O
into	O
new	O
database	B-Application
systems	I-Application
outside	O
of	O
Oracle	B-Application
's	O
control	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
include	O
MariaDB	B-Application
,	O
Percona	B-Language
,	O
and	O
Drizzle	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
All	O
of	O
these	O
have	O
distinct	O
names	O
;	O
they	O
are	O
distinct	O
projects	O
and	O
cannot	O
use	O
the	O
trademarked	O
name	O
MySQL	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
August	O
2010	O
,	O
Oracle	B-Application
sued	O
Google	B-Application
,	O
claiming	O
that	O
its	O
use	O
of	O
Java	B-Device
in	O
Android	B-Application
infringed	O
on	O
Oracle	B-Application
's	O
copyrights	O
and	O
patents	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
May	O
2012	O
,	O
the	O
trial	O
judge	O
determined	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
did	O
not	O
infringe	O
on	O
Oracle	B-Application
's	O
patents	O
and	O
ruled	O
that	O
the	O
structure	O
of	O
the	O
Java	B-Device
APIs	O
used	O
by	O
Google	B-Application
was	O
not	O
copyrightable	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
jury	O
found	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
infringed	O
a	O
small	O
number	O
of	O
copied	O
files	O
,	O
but	O
the	O
parties	O
stipulated	O
that	O
Google	B-Application
would	O
pay	O
no	O
damages	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Oracle	B-Application
appealed	O
to	O
the	O
Federal	O
Circuit	O
,	O
and	O
Google	B-Application
filed	O
a	O
cross-appeal	O
on	O
the	O
literal	O
copying	O
claim	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
defying	O
ownership	O
regulations	O
in	O
the	O
construction	O
and	O
use	O
of	O
information	O
—	O
a	O
key	O
area	O
of	O
contemporary	O
growth	O
—	O
the	O
Free/Open	B-License
Source	I-License
Software	I-License
(	O
FOSS	B-License
)	O
movement	O
counters	O
neoliberalism	O
and	O
privatization	O
in	O
general	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
realizing	O
the	O
historical	O
potential	O
of	O
an	O
"	O
economy	O
of	O
abundance	O
"	O
for	O
the	O
new	O
digital	O
world	O
FOSS	B-License
may	O
lay	O
down	O
a	O
plan	O
for	O
political	O
resistance	O
or	O
show	O
the	O
way	O
towards	O
a	O
potential	O
transformation	O
of	O
capitalism	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
According	O
to	O
Yochai	O
Benkler	O
,	O
Jack	O
N	O
.	O
and	O
Lillian	O
R	O
.	O
Berkman	O
Professor	O
for	O
Entrepreneurial	O
Legal	O
Studies	O
at	O
Harvard	O
Law	O
School	O
,	O
free	B-Application
software	I-Application
is	O
the	O
most	O
visible	O
part	O
of	O
a	O
new	O
economy	O
of	O
commons-based	O
peer	O
production	O
of	O
information	O
,	O
knowledge	O
,	O
and	O
culture	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
examples	O
,	O
he	O
cites	O
a	O
variety	O
of	O
FOSS	B-License
projects	O
,	O
including	O
both	O
free	B-Application
software	I-Application
and	O
open-source	B-Application
.	O
</s>
