<s>
In	O
computing	O
,	O
firmware	B-Application
is	O
a	O
specific	O
class	O
of	O
computer	B-Application
software	I-Application
that	O
provides	O
the	O
low-level	O
control	O
for	O
a	O
device	O
's	O
specific	O
hardware	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Firmware	B-Application
,	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
BIOS	B-Operating_System
of	O
a	O
personal	O
computer	O
,	O
may	O
contain	O
basic	O
functions	O
of	O
a	O
device	O
,	O
and	O
may	O
provide	O
hardware	B-Operating_System
abstraction	I-Operating_System
services	O
to	O
higher-level	O
software	O
such	O
as	O
operating	B-General_Concept
systems	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
less	O
complex	O
devices	O
,	O
firmware	B-Application
may	O
act	O
as	O
the	O
device	O
's	O
complete	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
,	O
performing	O
all	O
control	O
,	O
monitoring	O
and	O
data	O
manipulation	O
functions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Typical	O
examples	O
of	O
devices	O
containing	O
firmware	B-Application
are	O
embedded	B-Architecture
systems	I-Architecture
(	O
running	O
embedded	B-Application
software	I-Application
)	O
,	O
home	O
and	O
personal-use	O
appliances	O
,	O
computers	O
,	O
and	O
computer	B-Device
peripherals	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Firmware	B-Application
is	O
held	O
in	O
non-volatile	B-General_Concept
memory	I-General_Concept
devices	O
such	O
as	O
ROM	B-Device
,	O
EPROM	B-General_Concept
,	O
EEPROM	B-General_Concept
,	O
and	O
flash	B-Device
memory	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Updating	O
firmware	B-Application
requires	O
ROM	B-Device
integrated	O
circuits	O
to	O
be	O
physically	O
replaced	O
,	O
or	O
EPROM	B-General_Concept
or	O
flash	B-Device
memory	I-Device
to	O
be	O
reprogrammed	O
through	O
a	O
special	O
procedure	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
firmware	B-Application
memory	O
devices	O
are	O
permanently	O
installed	O
and	O
cannot	O
be	O
changed	O
after	O
manufacture	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Common	O
reasons	O
for	O
updating	O
firmware	B-Application
include	O
fixing	O
bugs	O
or	O
adding	O
features	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Ascher	O
Opler	O
coined	O
the	O
term	O
firmware	B-Application
in	O
a	O
1967	O
Datamation	O
article	O
,	O
as	O
an	O
intermediary	O
term	O
between	O
"	O
hardware	B-Architecture
"	O
and	O
"	O
software	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Originally	O
,	O
it	O
meant	O
the	O
contents	O
of	O
a	O
writable	O
control	B-General_Concept
store	I-General_Concept
(	O
a	O
small	O
specialized	O
high-speed	O
memory	O
)	O
,	O
containing	O
microcode	B-Device
that	O
defined	O
and	O
implemented	O
the	O
computer	O
's	O
instruction	B-General_Concept
set	I-General_Concept
,	O
and	O
that	O
could	O
be	O
reloaded	O
to	O
specialize	O
or	O
modify	O
the	O
instructions	O
that	O
the	O
central	B-General_Concept
processing	I-General_Concept
unit	I-General_Concept
(	O
CPU	O
)	O
could	O
execute	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
originally	O
used	O
,	O
firmware	B-Application
contrasted	O
with	O
hardware	B-Architecture
(	O
the	O
CPU	O
itself	O
)	O
and	O
software	O
(	O
normal	O
instructions	O
executing	O
on	O
a	O
CPU	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
was	O
not	O
composed	O
of	O
CPU	O
machine	O
instructions	O
,	O
but	O
of	O
lower-level	O
microcode	B-Device
involved	O
in	O
the	O
implementation	O
of	O
machine	O
instructions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
existed	O
on	O
the	O
boundary	O
between	O
hardware	B-Architecture
and	O
software	O
;	O
thus	O
the	O
name	O
firmware	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Over	O
time	O
,	O
popular	O
usage	O
extended	O
the	O
word	O
firmware	B-Application
to	O
denote	O
any	O
computer	O
program	O
that	O
is	O
tightly	O
linked	O
to	O
hardware	B-Architecture
,	O
including	O
BIOS	B-Operating_System
on	O
PCs	O
,	O
boot	O
firmware	B-Application
on	O
smartphones	O
,	O
computer	B-Device
peripherals	I-Device
,	O
or	O
the	O
control	O
systems	O
on	O
simple	O
consumer	O
electronic	O
devices	O
such	O
as	O
microwave	O
ovens	O
,	O
remote	B-Protocol
controls	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
some	O
respects	O
,	O
the	O
various	O
firmware	B-Application
components	O
are	O
as	O
important	O
as	O
the	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
in	O
a	O
working	O
computer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
unlike	O
most	O
modern	O
operating	B-General_Concept
systems	I-General_Concept
,	O
firmware	B-Application
rarely	O
has	O
a	O
well-evolved	O
automatic	O
mechanism	O
of	O
updating	O
itself	O
to	O
fix	O
any	O
functionality	O
issues	O
detected	O
after	O
shipping	O
the	O
unit	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
BIOS	B-Operating_System
may	O
be	O
manually	O
updated	O
by	O
a	O
user	O
via	O
a	O
small	O
utility	O
program	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
contrast	O
,	O
firmware	B-Application
in	O
mass	O
storage	O
devices	O
(	O
hard-disk	B-Device
drives	I-Device
,	O
optical	O
disc	O
drives	O
,	O
flash	B-Device
memory	I-Device
storage	O
e.g.	O
</s>
<s>
solid	B-Device
state	I-Device
drive	I-Device
)	O
is	O
less	O
frequently	O
updated	O
,	O
even	O
when	O
flash	B-Device
memory	I-Device
(	O
rather	O
than	O
ROM	B-Device
,	O
EEPROM	B-General_Concept
)	O
storage	O
is	O
used	O
for	O
the	O
firmware	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Most	O
computer	B-Device
peripherals	I-Device
are	O
themselves	O
special-purpose	B-Architecture
computers	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Devices	O
such	O
as	O
printers	O
,	O
scanners	O
,	O
webcams	O
,	O
and	O
USB	B-Protocol
flash	O
drives	O
have	O
internally-stored	O
firmware	B-Application
;	O
some	O
devices	O
may	O
also	O
permit	O
field	O
upgrading	O
of	O
their	O
firmware	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Other	O
instances	O
of	O
computer	O
firmware	B-Application
include	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
Kickstart	B-Device
,	O
used	O
in	O
the	O
Amiga	B-Device
line	O
of	O
computers	O
(	O
POST	B-Device
,	O
hardware	B-Architecture
init	O
+	O
Plug	B-Device
and	I-Device
Play	I-Device
auto-configuration	B-Device
of	O
peripherals	B-Device
,	O
kernel	B-Operating_System
,	O
etc	O
.	O
)	O
</s>
<s>
,	O
most	O
portable	O
music	O
players	O
support	O
firmware	B-Application
upgrades	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
companies	O
use	O
firmware	B-Application
updates	O
to	O
add	O
new	O
playable	O
file	O
formats	O
(	O
codecs	B-General_Concept
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Other	O
features	O
that	O
may	O
change	O
with	O
firmware	B-Application
updates	O
include	O
the	O
GUI	O
or	O
even	O
the	O
battery	O
life	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Most	O
mobile	O
phones	O
have	O
a	O
firmware	B-Application
over	O
the	O
air	O
firmware	B-Application
upgrade	O
capability	O
for	O
much	O
the	O
same	O
reasons	O
;	O
some	O
may	O
even	O
be	O
upgraded	O
to	O
enhance	O
reception	O
or	O
sound	O
quality	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Local	O
dealers	O
can	O
update	O
most	O
vehicle	O
firmware	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Other	O
firmware	B-Application
applications	O
include	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
routers	B-Protocol
,	O
switches	B-Protocol
,	O
and	O
firewalls	B-Application
:	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
NAS	B-Application
systems	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
Flashing	O
involves	O
the	O
overwriting	O
of	O
existing	O
firmware	B-Application
or	O
data	O
,	O
contained	O
in	O
EEPROM	B-General_Concept
or	O
flash	B-Device
memory	I-Device
module	O
present	O
in	O
an	O
electronic	O
device	O
,	O
with	O
new	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
can	O
be	O
done	O
to	O
upgrade	O
a	O
device	O
or	O
to	O
change	O
the	O
provider	O
of	O
a	O
service	O
associated	O
with	O
the	O
function	O
of	O
the	O
device	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
changing	O
from	O
one	O
mobile	O
phone	O
service	O
provider	O
to	O
another	O
or	O
installing	O
a	O
new	O
operating	B-General_Concept
system	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
If	O
firmware	B-Application
is	O
upgradable	O
,	O
it	O
is	O
often	O
done	O
via	O
a	O
program	O
from	O
the	O
provider	O
,	O
and	O
will	O
often	O
allow	O
the	O
old	O
firmware	B-Application
to	O
be	O
saved	O
before	O
upgrading	O
so	O
it	O
can	O
be	O
reverted	O
to	O
if	O
the	O
process	O
fails	O
,	O
or	O
if	O
the	O
newer	O
version	O
performs	O
worse	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Free	B-Application
software	I-Application
replacements	O
for	O
vendor	O
flashing	O
tools	O
have	O
been	O
developed	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
Flashrom	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Sometimes	O
,	O
third	O
parties	O
develop	O
an	O
unofficial	O
new	O
or	O
modified	O
(	O
"	O
aftermarket	O
"	O
)	O
version	O
of	O
firmware	B-Application
to	O
provide	O
new	O
features	O
or	O
to	O
unlock	O
hidden	O
functionality	O
;	O
this	O
is	O
referred	O
to	O
as	O
custom	O
firmware	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
example	O
is	O
Rockbox	B-Application
as	O
a	O
firmware	B-Application
replacement	O
for	O
portable	O
media	O
players	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
many	O
homebrew	B-Application
projects	O
for	O
various	O
devices	O
,	O
which	O
often	O
unlock	O
general-purpose	O
computing	O
functionality	O
in	O
previously	O
limited	O
devices	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
running	O
Doom	B-Application
on	O
iPods	B-Device
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Firmware	B-Application
hacks	O
usually	O
take	O
advantage	O
of	O
the	O
firmware	B-Application
update	O
facility	O
on	O
many	O
devices	O
to	O
install	O
or	O
run	O
themselves	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
,	O
however	O
,	O
must	O
resort	O
to	O
exploits	O
to	O
run	O
,	O
because	O
the	O
manufacturer	O
has	O
attempted	O
to	O
lock	O
the	O
hardware	B-Architecture
to	O
stop	O
it	O
from	O
running	O
unlicensed	O
code	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Most	O
firmware	B-Application
hacks	O
are	O
free	B-Application
software	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Moscow-based	O
Kaspersky	O
Lab	O
discovered	O
that	O
a	O
group	O
of	O
developers	O
it	O
refers	O
to	O
as	O
the	O
"	O
Equation	O
Group	O
"	O
has	O
developed	O
hard	B-Device
disk	I-Device
drive	I-Device
firmware	B-Application
modifications	O
for	O
various	O
drive	O
models	O
,	O
containing	O
a	O
trojan	O
horse	O
that	O
allows	O
data	O
to	O
be	O
stored	O
on	O
the	O
drive	O
in	O
locations	O
that	O
will	O
not	O
be	O
erased	O
even	O
if	O
the	O
drive	O
is	O
formatted	O
or	O
wiped	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Mark	O
Shuttleworth	O
,	O
the	O
founder	O
of	O
the	O
company	O
Canonical	O
,	O
which	O
maintains	O
the	O
Ubuntu	B-Operating_System
Linux	I-Operating_System
distribution	I-Operating_System
,	O
has	O
described	O
proprietary	B-General_Concept
firmware	I-General_Concept
as	O
a	O
security	O
risk	O
,	O
saying	O
that	O
"	O
firmware	B-Application
on	O
your	O
device	O
is	O
the	O
NSA	O
's	O
best	O
friend	O
"	O
and	O
calling	O
firmware	B-Application
"	O
a	O
trojan	O
horse	O
of	O
monumental	O
proportions	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
He	O
has	O
asserted	O
that	O
low-quality	O
,	O
closed	B-Application
source	I-Application
firmware	B-Application
is	O
a	O
major	O
threat	O
to	O
system	O
security	O
:	O
"	O
Your	O
biggest	O
mistake	O
is	O
to	O
assume	O
that	O
the	O
NSA	O
is	O
the	O
only	O
institution	O
abusing	O
this	O
position	O
of	O
trust	O
in	O
fact	O
,	O
it	O
's	O
reasonable	O
to	O
assume	O
that	O
all	O
firmware	B-Application
is	O
a	O
cesspool	O
of	O
insecurity	O
,	O
courtesy	O
of	O
incompetence	O
of	O
the	O
highest	O
degree	O
from	O
manufacturers	O
,	O
and	O
competence	O
of	O
the	O
highest	O
degree	O
from	O
a	O
very	O
wide	O
range	O
of	O
such	O
agencies	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
a	O
potential	O
solution	O
to	O
this	O
problem	O
,	O
he	O
has	O
called	O
for	O
declarative	O
firmware	B-Application
,	O
which	O
would	O
describe	O
"	O
hardware	B-Architecture
linkage	O
and	O
dependencies	O
"	O
and	O
"	O
should	O
not	O
include	O
executable	B-Application
code	I-Application
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Firmware	B-Application
should	O
be	O
open-source	B-Application
so	O
that	O
the	O
code	O
can	O
be	O
checked	O
and	O
verified	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Custom	O
firmware	B-Application
hacks	O
have	O
also	O
focused	O
on	O
injecting	O
malware	O
into	O
devices	O
such	O
as	O
smartphones	O
or	O
USB	B-Protocol
devices	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
USB	B-Protocol
device	I-Protocol
firmware	B-Application
hack	O
called	O
BadUSB	O
was	O
presented	O
at	O
the	O
Black	O
Hat	O
USA	O
2014	O
conference	O
,	O
demonstrating	O
how	O
a	O
USB	B-Protocol
flash	O
drive	O
microcontroller	O
can	O
be	O
reprogrammed	O
to	O
spoof	O
various	O
other	O
device	O
types	O
to	O
take	O
control	O
of	O
a	O
computer	O
,	O
exfiltrate	O
data	O
,	O
or	O
spy	O
on	O
the	O
user	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Other	O
security	O
researchers	O
have	O
worked	O
further	O
on	O
how	O
to	O
exploit	O
the	O
principles	O
behind	O
BadUSB	O
,	O
releasing	O
at	O
the	O
same	O
time	O
the	O
source	O
code	O
of	O
hacking	O
tools	O
that	O
can	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
modify	O
the	O
behavior	O
of	O
different	O
USB	B-Protocol
devices	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
