<s>
The	O
Fifth	B-Device
Generation	I-Device
Computer	I-Device
Systems	I-Device
(	O
FGCS	O
)	O
was	O
a	O
10-year	O
initiative	O
begun	O
in	O
1982	O
by	O
Japan	O
's	O
Ministry	O
of	O
International	O
Trade	O
and	O
Industry	O
(	O
MITI	O
)	O
to	O
create	O
computers	O
using	O
massively	B-Operating_System
parallel	I-Operating_System
computing	I-Operating_System
and	O
logic	B-Language
programming	I-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
aimed	O
to	O
create	O
an	O
"	O
epoch-making	O
computer	O
"	O
with	O
supercomputer-like	O
performance	O
and	O
to	O
provide	O
a	O
platform	O
for	O
future	O
developments	O
in	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
.	I-Application
</s>
<s>
FGCS	O
contributed	O
greatly	O
to	O
the	O
field	O
of	O
concurrent	B-Application
logic	I-Application
programming	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
history	B-Architecture
of	I-Architecture
computing	I-Architecture
hardware	I-Architecture
,	O
computers	O
using	O
vacuum	O
tubes	O
were	O
called	O
the	O
first	O
generation	O
;	O
transistors	B-Application
and	O
diodes	O
,	O
the	O
second	O
;	O
integrated	O
circuits	O
,	O
the	O
third	O
;	O
and	O
those	O
using	O
microprocessors	B-Architecture
,	O
the	O
fourth	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Whereas	O
previous	O
computer	B-Architecture
generations	I-Architecture
had	O
focused	O
on	O
increasing	O
the	O
number	O
of	O
logic	O
elements	O
in	O
a	O
single	O
CPU	O
,	O
the	O
fifth	O
generation	O
,	O
it	O
was	O
widely	O
believed	O
at	O
the	O
time	O
,	O
would	O
instead	O
turn	O
to	O
massive	O
numbers	O
of	O
CPUs	O
for	O
added	O
performance	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
IBM	B-Device
650	I-Device
was	O
a	O
first-generation	O
computer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Second	O
generation	O
:	O
Transistors	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Transistors	B-Application
are	O
much	O
smaller	O
than	O
vacuum	O
tubes	O
,	O
draw	O
less	O
power	O
,	O
and	O
generate	O
less	O
heat	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Discrete	O
transistors	B-Application
are	O
soldered	O
to	O
circuit	O
boards	O
,	O
with	O
interconnections	O
accomplished	O
by	O
stencil-screened	O
conductive	O
patterns	O
on	O
the	O
reverse	O
side	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
IBM	B-Device
7090	I-Device
was	O
a	O
second-generation	O
computer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Third	O
generation	O
:	O
Integrated	O
circuits	O
(	O
silicon	O
chips	O
containing	O
multiple	O
transistors	B-Application
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
pioneering	O
example	O
is	O
the	O
ACPX	O
module	O
used	O
in	O
the	O
IBM	O
360/91	O
,	O
which	O
,	O
by	O
stacking	O
layers	O
of	O
silicon	O
over	O
a	O
ceramic	O
substrate	O
,	O
accommodated	O
over	O
20	O
transistors	B-Application
per	O
chip	O
;	O
the	O
chips	O
could	O
be	O
packed	O
together	O
onto	O
a	O
circuit	O
board	O
to	O
achieve	O
unprecedented	O
logic	O
densities	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
First	O
generation	O
:	O
Machine	B-Language
language	I-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Second	O
generation	O
:	O
Low-level	B-Language
programming	I-Language
languages	I-Language
such	O
as	O
Assembly	B-Language
language	I-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Third	O
generation	O
:	O
Structured	O
high-level	B-Language
programming	I-Language
languages	I-Language
such	O
as	O
C	B-Language
,	O
COBOL	B-Application
and	O
FORTRAN	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Fourth	B-Language
generation	I-Language
:	O
"	O
Non-procedural	O
"	O
high-level	B-Language
programming	I-Language
languages	I-Language
(	O
such	O
as	O
object-oriented	O
languages	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
was	O
during	O
this	O
period	O
that	O
the	O
term	O
"	O
fifth-generation	B-Device
computer	I-Device
"	O
started	O
to	O
be	O
used	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
MITI	O
decided	O
that	O
the	O
future	O
was	O
going	O
to	O
be	O
information	B-General_Concept
technology	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
aim	O
was	O
to	O
build	O
parallel	B-Operating_System
computers	I-Operating_System
for	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
applications	O
using	O
concurrent	B-Application
logic	I-Application
programming	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
project	O
imagined	O
an	O
"	O
epoch-making	O
"	O
computer	O
with	O
supercomputer-like	O
performance	O
running	O
on	O
top	O
of	O
large	O
databases	B-Application
(	O
as	O
opposed	O
to	O
a	O
traditional	O
filesystem	B-Application
)	O
using	O
a	O
logic	B-Language
programming	I-Language
language	I-Language
to	O
define	O
and	O
access	O
the	O
data	O
using	O
massively	O
parallel	O
computing/processing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
At	O
the	O
time	O
typical	O
workstation	B-Device
machines	O
were	O
capable	O
of	O
about	O
100k	O
LIPS	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1982	O
the	O
government	O
decided	O
to	O
go	O
ahead	O
with	O
the	O
project	O
,	O
and	O
established	O
the	O
Institute	O
for	O
New	O
Generation	O
Computer	O
Technology	O
(	O
ICOT	O
)	O
through	O
joint	O
investment	O
with	O
various	O
Japanese	O
computer	B-General_Concept
companies	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
"	O
As	O
part	O
of	O
Japan	O
's	O
effort	O
to	O
become	O
a	O
leader	O
in	O
the	O
computer	B-General_Concept
industry	I-General_Concept
,	O
the	O
Institute	O
for	O
New	O
Generation	O
Computer	O
Technology	O
has	O
launched	O
a	O
revolutionary	O
ten-year	O
plan	O
for	O
the	O
development	O
of	O
large	O
computer	O
systems	O
which	O
will	O
be	O
applicable	O
to	O
knowledge	O
information	O
processing	O
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
Fifth	B-Device
Generation	I-Device
computers	I-Device
will	O
be	O
built	O
around	O
the	O
concepts	O
of	O
logic	B-Language
programming	I-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
target	O
defined	O
by	O
the	O
FGCS	O
project	O
was	O
to	O
develop	O
"	O
Knowledge	O
Information	O
Processing	O
systems	O
"	O
(	O
roughly	O
meaning	O
,	O
applied	O
Artificial	B-Application
Intelligence	I-Application
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
chosen	O
tool	O
to	O
implement	O
this	O
goal	O
was	O
logic	B-Language
programming	I-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Logic	B-Language
programming	I-Language
approach	O
as	O
was	O
characterized	O
by	O
Maarten	O
Van	O
Emden	O
–	O
one	O
of	O
its	O
founders	O
–	O
as	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Axioms	O
typically	O
used	O
are	O
universal	O
axioms	O
of	O
a	O
restricted	O
form	O
,	O
called	O
Horn-clauses	B-Application
or	O
definite-clauses	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Logic	B-Language
programming	I-Language
was	O
thought	O
as	O
something	O
that	O
unified	O
various	O
gradients	O
of	O
computer	O
science	O
(	O
software	B-General_Concept
engineering	I-General_Concept
,	O
databases	B-Application
,	O
computer	B-General_Concept
architecture	I-General_Concept
and	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
seemed	O
that	O
logic	B-Language
programming	I-Language
was	O
a	O
key	O
missing	O
connection	O
between	O
knowledge	O
engineering	O
and	O
parallel	B-Operating_System
computer	I-Operating_System
architectures	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
launch	O
of	O
the	O
FGCS	O
project	O
spread	O
the	O
belief	O
that	O
parallel	B-Operating_System
computing	I-Operating_System
was	O
the	O
future	O
of	O
all	O
performance	O
gains	O
,	O
producing	O
a	O
wave	O
of	O
apprehension	O
in	O
the	O
computer	O
field	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Soon	O
parallel	O
projects	O
were	O
set	O
up	O
in	O
the	O
US	O
as	O
the	O
Strategic	O
Computing	O
Initiative	O
and	O
the	O
Microelectronics	O
and	O
Computer	O
Technology	O
Corporation	O
(	O
MCC	O
)	O
,	O
in	O
the	O
UK	O
as	O
Alvey	O
,	O
and	O
in	O
Europe	O
as	O
the	O
European	O
Strategic	O
Program	O
on	O
Research	O
in	O
Information	B-General_Concept
Technology	I-General_Concept
(	O
ESPRIT	O
)	O
,	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
the	O
European	O
Computer‐Industry	O
Research	O
Centre	O
(	O
ECRC	O
)	O
in	O
Munich	O
,	O
a	O
collaboration	O
between	O
ICL	O
in	O
Britain	O
,	O
Bull	O
in	O
France	O
,	O
and	O
Siemens	O
in	O
Germany	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1982	O
,	O
during	O
a	O
visit	O
to	O
the	O
ICOT	O
,	O
Ehud	O
Shapiro	O
invented	O
Concurrent	B-Operating_System
Prolog	B-Language
,	O
a	O
novel	O
programming	O
language	O
that	O
integrated	O
logic	B-Language
programming	I-Language
and	O
concurrent	B-Operating_System
programming	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Concurrent	B-Operating_System
Prolog	B-Language
is	O
a	O
process	B-Application
oriented	I-Application
language	I-Application
,	O
which	O
embodies	O
dataflow	B-Application
synchronization	O
and	O
guarded-command	O
indeterminacy	B-Application
as	O
its	O
basic	O
control	O
mechanisms	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Shapiro	O
described	O
the	O
language	O
in	O
a	O
Report	O
marked	O
as	O
ICOT	O
Technical	O
Report	O
003	O
,	O
which	O
presented	O
a	O
Concurrent	B-Operating_System
Prolog	B-Language
interpreter	B-Application
written	O
in	O
Prolog	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Shapiro	O
's	O
work	O
on	O
Concurrent	B-Operating_System
Prolog	B-Language
inspired	O
a	O
change	O
in	O
the	O
direction	O
of	O
the	O
FGCS	O
from	O
focusing	O
on	O
parallel	O
implementation	O
of	O
Prolog	B-Language
to	O
the	O
focus	O
on	O
concurrent	B-Application
logic	I-Application
programming	I-Application
as	O
the	O
software	O
foundation	O
for	O
the	O
project	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
also	O
inspired	O
the	O
concurrent	B-Application
logic	I-Application
programming	I-Application
language	O
Guarded	O
Horn	B-Application
Clauses	I-Application
(	O
GHC	O
)	O
by	O
Ueda	O
,	O
which	O
was	O
the	O
basis	O
of	O
KL1	B-Language
,	O
the	O
programming	O
language	O
that	O
was	O
finally	O
designed	O
and	O
implemented	O
by	O
the	O
FGCS	O
project	O
as	O
its	O
core	O
programming	O
language	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
FGCS	O
project	O
and	O
its	O
findings	O
contributed	O
greatly	O
to	O
the	O
development	O
of	O
the	O
concurrent	B-Application
logic	I-Application
programming	I-Application
field	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Five	O
running	O
Parallel	O
Inference	O
Machines	O
(	O
PIM	O
)	O
were	O
eventually	O
produced	O
:	O
PIM/m	O
,	O
PIM/p	O
,	O
PIM/i	O
,	O
PIM/k	O
,	O
PIM/c	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
project	O
also	O
produced	O
applications	O
to	O
run	O
on	O
these	O
systems	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
parallel	O
database	B-Application
management	I-Application
system	I-Application
Kappa	O
,	O
the	O
legal	O
reasoning	O
system	O
HELIC-II	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
automated	B-Application
theorem	I-Application
prover	I-Application
MGTP	O
,	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
applications	O
to	O
bioinformatics	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
FGCS	O
Project	O
did	O
not	O
meet	O
with	O
commercial	O
success	O
for	O
reasons	O
similar	O
to	O
the	O
Lisp	B-Operating_System
machine	I-Operating_System
companies	O
and	O
Thinking	O
Machines	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
highly	O
parallel	B-Operating_System
computer	I-Operating_System
architecture	O
was	O
eventually	O
surpassed	O
in	O
speed	O
by	O
less	O
specialized	O
hardware	O
(	O
for	O
example	O
,	O
Sun	O
workstations	B-Device
and	O
Intel	B-Operating_System
x86	I-Operating_System
machines	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
primary	O
problem	O
was	O
the	O
choice	O
of	O
concurrent	B-Application
logic	I-Application
programming	I-Application
as	O
the	O
bridge	O
between	O
the	O
parallel	B-Operating_System
computer	I-Operating_System
architecture	O
and	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
logic	O
as	O
a	O
knowledge	O
representation	O
and	O
problem	O
solving	O
language	O
for	O
AI	B-Application
applications	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
particular	O
,	O
the	O
committed	O
choice	O
feature	O
of	O
concurrent	B-Application
constraint	I-Application
logic	I-Application
programming	I-Application
interfered	O
with	O
the	O
logical	O
semantics	O
of	O
the	O
languages	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
project	O
found	O
that	O
the	O
promises	O
of	O
logic	B-Language
programming	I-Language
were	O
largely	O
negated	O
by	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
committed	O
choice	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Another	O
problem	O
was	O
that	O
existing	O
CPU	O
performance	O
quickly	O
pushed	O
through	O
the	O
barriers	O
that	O
experts	O
perceived	O
in	O
the	O
1980s	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
value	O
of	O
parallel	B-Operating_System
computing	I-Operating_System
dropped	O
to	O
the	O
point	O
where	O
it	O
was	O
for	O
some	O
time	O
used	O
only	O
in	O
niche	O
situations	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Although	O
a	O
number	O
of	O
workstations	B-Device
of	O
increasing	O
capacity	O
were	O
designed	O
and	O
built	O
over	O
the	O
project	O
's	O
lifespan	O
,	O
they	O
generally	O
found	O
themselves	O
soon	O
outperformed	O
by	O
"	O
off	O
the	O
shelf	O
"	O
units	O
available	O
commercially	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
During	O
its	O
lifespan	O
,	O
GUIs	B-Application
became	O
mainstream	O
in	O
computers	O
;	O
the	O
internet	O
enabled	O
locally	O
stored	O
databases	B-Application
to	O
become	O
distributed	O
;	O
and	O
even	O
simple	O
research	O
projects	O
provided	O
better	O
real-world	O
results	O
in	O
data	O
mining	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
workstations	B-Device
had	O
no	O
appeal	O
in	O
a	O
market	O
where	O
general	O
purpose	O
systems	O
could	O
now	O
replace	O
and	O
outperform	O
them	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
is	O
parallel	O
to	O
the	O
Lisp	B-Operating_System
machine	I-Operating_System
market	O
,	O
where	O
rule-based	B-Language
systems	O
such	O
as	O
CLIPS	B-Application
could	O
run	O
on	O
general-purpose	O
computers	O
,	O
making	O
expensive	O
Lisp	B-Operating_System
machines	I-Operating_System
unnecessary	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
early	O
21st	O
century	O
,	O
many	O
flavors	O
of	O
parallel	B-Operating_System
computing	I-Operating_System
began	O
to	O
proliferate	O
,	O
including	O
multi-core	B-Architecture
architectures	O
at	O
the	O
low-end	O
and	O
massively	B-Operating_System
parallel	I-Operating_System
processing	I-Operating_System
at	O
the	O
high	O
end	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
clock	O
speeds	O
of	O
CPUs	O
began	O
to	O
move	O
into	O
the	O
3	O
–	O
5GHz	O
range	O
,	O
CPU	B-General_Concept
power	I-General_Concept
dissipation	I-General_Concept
and	O
other	O
problems	O
became	O
more	O
important	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
ability	O
of	O
industry	O
to	O
produce	O
ever-faster	O
single	O
CPU	O
systems	O
(	O
linked	O
to	O
Moore	O
's	O
Law	O
about	O
the	O
periodic	O
doubling	O
of	O
transistor	B-Application
counts	O
)	O
began	O
to	O
be	O
threatened	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Ordinary	O
consumer	O
machines	O
and	O
game	O
consoles	O
began	O
to	O
have	O
parallel	B-Operating_System
processors	I-Operating_System
like	O
the	O
Intel	B-Device
Core	I-Device
,	O
AMD	O
K10	O
,	O
and	O
Cell	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Graphics	B-Device
card	I-Device
companies	O
like	O
Nvidia	O
and	O
AMD	O
began	O
introducing	O
large	O
parallel	O
systems	O
like	O
CUDA	B-Architecture
and	O
OpenCL	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
On	O
another	O
line	O
of	O
development	O
,	O
the	O
Web	B-Language
Ontology	I-Language
Language	I-Language
(	O
OWL	B-Language
)	O
employs	O
several	O
layers	O
of	O
logic-based	O
knowledge	O
representation	O
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
No	O
significant	O
impact	O
of	O
FGCS	O
on	O
the	O
computing	B-General_Concept
industry	I-General_Concept
has	O
been	O
demonstrated	O
.	O
</s>
