<s>
Electrophysiology	B-Algorithm
(	O
from	O
Greek	O
,	O
ēlektron	O
,	O
"	O
amber	O
"	O
[	O
see	O
the	O
etymology	O
of	O
"	O
electron	O
"	O
]	O
;	O
,	O
physis	O
,	O
"	O
nature	O
,	O
origin	O
"	O
;	O
and	O
,	O
-logia	O
)	O
is	O
the	O
branch	O
of	O
physiology	O
that	O
studies	O
the	O
electrical	O
properties	O
of	O
biological	O
cells	O
and	O
tissues	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
neuroscience	O
,	O
it	O
includes	O
measurements	O
of	O
the	O
electrical	O
activity	O
of	O
neurons	O
,	O
and	O
,	O
in	O
particular	O
,	O
action	B-Algorithm
potential	I-Algorithm
activity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Recordings	O
of	O
large-scale	O
electric	O
signals	O
from	O
the	O
nervous	O
system	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
electroencephalography	B-Application
,	O
may	O
also	O
be	O
referred	O
to	O
as	O
electrophysiological	B-Application
recordings	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Electrophysiology	B-Algorithm
is	O
the	O
branch	O
of	O
physiology	O
that	O
pertains	O
broadly	O
to	O
the	O
flow	O
of	O
ions	O
(	O
ion	O
current	O
)	O
in	O
biological	O
tissues	O
and	O
,	O
in	O
particular	O
,	O
to	O
the	O
electrical	O
recording	O
techniques	O
that	O
enable	O
the	O
measurement	O
of	O
this	O
flow	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Classical	O
electrophysiology	B-Algorithm
techniques	O
involve	O
placing	O
electrodes	O
into	O
various	O
preparations	O
of	O
biological	O
tissue	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Neuronal	O
electrophysiology	B-Algorithm
is	O
the	O
study	O
of	O
electrical	O
properties	O
of	O
biological	O
cells	O
and	O
tissues	O
within	O
the	O
nervous	O
system	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
With	O
neuronal	O
electrophysiology	B-Algorithm
doctors	O
and	O
specialists	O
can	O
determine	O
how	O
neuronal	O
disorders	O
happen	O
,	O
by	O
looking	O
at	O
the	O
individual	O
's	O
brain	B-Application
activity	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
If	O
an	O
electrode	O
is	O
small	O
enough	O
(	O
micrometers	O
)	O
in	O
diameter	O
,	O
then	O
the	O
electrophysiologist	B-Application
may	O
choose	O
to	O
insert	O
the	O
tip	O
into	O
a	O
single	O
cell	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
electrophysiologist	B-Application
may	O
choose	O
not	O
to	O
insert	O
the	O
tip	O
into	O
a	O
single	O
cell	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
If	O
the	O
tip	O
is	O
small	O
enough	O
,	O
such	O
a	O
configuration	O
may	O
allow	O
indirect	O
observation	O
and	O
recording	O
of	O
action	B-Algorithm
potentials	I-Algorithm
from	O
a	O
single	O
cell	O
,	O
termed	O
single-unit	O
recording	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Larger	O
electrodes	O
are	O
sensitive	O
only	O
to	O
the	O
net	O
activity	O
of	O
many	O
cells	O
,	O
termed	O
local	B-Algorithm
field	I-Algorithm
potentials	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Other	O
classical	O
electrophysiological	B-Application
techniques	O
include	O
single	O
channel	O
recording	O
and	O
amperometry	B-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Electrophysiological	B-Application
recording	O
in	O
general	O
is	O
sometimes	O
called	O
electrography	O
(	O
from	O
electro	O
-	O
+	O
-graphy	O
,	O
"	O
electrical	O
recording	O
"	O
)	O
,	O
with	O
the	O
record	O
thus	O
produced	O
being	O
an	O
electrogram	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
the	O
word	O
electrography	O
has	O
other	O
senses	O
(	O
including	O
electrophotography	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
specific	O
types	O
of	O
electrophysiological	B-Application
recording	O
are	O
usually	O
called	O
by	O
specific	O
names	O
,	O
constructed	O
on	O
the	O
pattern	O
of	O
electro	O
-	O
+	O
[	O
body	O
part	O
combining	O
form ]	O
+	O
-graphy	O
(	O
abbreviation	O
ExG	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Relatedly	O
,	O
the	O
word	O
electrogram	O
(	O
not	O
being	O
needed	O
for	O
those	O
other	O
senses	O
)	O
often	O
carries	O
the	O
specific	O
meaning	O
of	O
intracardiac	B-Application
electrogram	I-Application
,	O
which	O
is	O
like	O
an	O
electrocardiogram	B-Application
but	O
with	O
some	O
invasive	O
leads	O
(	O
inside	O
the	O
heart	O
)	O
rather	O
than	O
only	O
noninvasive	O
leads	O
(	O
on	O
the	O
skin	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Electrophysiological	B-Application
recording	O
for	O
clinical	O
diagnostic	O
purposes	O
is	O
included	O
within	O
the	O
category	O
of	O
electrodiagnostic	O
testing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Optical	O
electrophysiological	B-Application
techniques	O
were	O
created	O
by	O
scientists	O
and	O
engineers	O
to	O
overcome	O
one	O
of	O
the	O
main	O
limitations	O
of	O
classical	O
techniques	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Typically	O
,	O
the	O
resting	O
membrane	O
potential	O
of	O
a	O
healthy	O
cell	O
will	O
be	O
-60	O
to	O
-80	O
mV	O
,	O
and	O
during	O
an	O
action	B-Algorithm
potential	I-Algorithm
the	O
membrane	O
potential	O
might	O
reach	O
+40	O
mV	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1963	O
,	O
Alan	O
Lloyd	O
Hodgkin	O
and	O
Andrew	O
Fielding	O
Huxley	O
won	O
the	O
Nobel	O
Prize	O
in	O
Physiology	O
or	O
Medicine	O
for	O
their	O
contribution	O
to	O
understanding	O
the	O
mechanisms	O
underlying	O
the	O
generation	O
of	O
action	B-Algorithm
potentials	I-Algorithm
in	O
neurons	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Patch-clamp	O
may	O
also	O
be	O
combined	O
with	O
RNA	O
sequencing	O
in	O
a	O
technique	O
known	O
as	O
patch-seq	B-Algorithm
by	O
extracting	O
the	O
cellular	O
contents	O
following	O
recording	O
in	O
order	O
to	O
characterize	O
the	O
electrophysiological	B-Application
properties	O
relationship	O
to	O
gene	O
expression	O
and	O
cell-type	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
action	B-Algorithm
potentials	I-Algorithm
recorded	O
are	O
very	O
much	O
like	O
the	O
action	B-Algorithm
potentials	I-Algorithm
that	O
are	O
recorded	O
intracellularly	O
,	O
but	O
the	O
signals	O
are	O
very	O
much	O
smaller	O
(	O
typically	O
about	O
1	O
mV	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Recordings	O
from	O
one	O
or	O
more	O
such	O
electrodes	O
that	O
are	O
closely	O
spaced	O
can	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
identify	O
the	O
number	O
of	O
cells	O
around	O
it	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
which	O
of	O
the	O
spikes	B-Algorithm
come	O
from	O
which	O
cell	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
process	O
is	O
called	O
spike	B-Algorithm
sorting	I-Algorithm
and	O
is	O
suitable	O
in	O
areas	O
where	O
there	O
are	O
identified	O
types	O
of	O
cells	O
with	O
well	O
defined	O
spike	B-Algorithm
characteristics	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
If	O
the	O
electrode	O
tip	O
is	O
bigger	O
still	O
,	O
in	O
general	O
the	O
activity	O
of	O
individual	O
neurons	O
cannot	O
be	O
distinguished	O
but	O
the	O
electrode	O
will	O
still	O
be	O
able	O
to	O
record	O
a	O
field	B-Algorithm
potential	I-Algorithm
generated	O
by	O
the	O
activity	O
of	O
many	O
cells	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Extracellular	B-Algorithm
field	I-Algorithm
potentials	I-Algorithm
are	O
local	O
current	O
sinks	O
or	O
sources	O
that	O
are	O
generated	O
by	O
the	O
collective	O
activity	O
of	O
many	O
cells	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Usually	O
,	O
a	O
field	B-Algorithm
potential	I-Algorithm
is	O
generated	O
by	O
the	O
simultaneous	B-Algorithm
activation	I-Algorithm
of	O
many	O
neurons	O
by	O
synaptic	O
transmission	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
diagram	O
to	O
the	O
right	O
shows	O
hippocampal	O
synaptic	O
field	B-Algorithm
potentials	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
more	O
information	O
,	O
see	O
local	B-Algorithm
field	I-Algorithm
potential	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Amperometry	B-Algorithm
uses	O
a	O
carbon	O
electrode	O
to	O
record	O
changes	O
in	O
the	O
chemical	O
composition	O
of	O
the	O
oxidized	O
components	O
of	O
a	O
biological	O
solution	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Amperometry	B-Algorithm
has	O
been	O
used	O
for	O
studying	O
exocytosis	O
in	O
the	O
nervous	O
and	O
endocrine	O
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Planar	B-Application
patch	I-Application
clamp	I-Application
is	O
a	O
novel	O
method	O
developed	O
for	O
high	O
throughput	O
electrophysiology	B-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
With	O
this	O
electrophysiological	B-Application
approach	O
,	O
proteoliposomes	O
,	O
membrane	O
vesicles	O
,	O
or	O
membrane	O
fragments	O
containing	O
the	O
channel	O
or	O
transporter	O
of	O
interest	O
are	O
adsorbed	O
to	O
a	O
lipid	O
monolayer	O
painted	O
over	O
a	O
functionalized	O
electrode	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
electrode	O
consists	O
of	O
a	O
glass	O
support	O
,	O
a	O
chromium	B-Language
layer	O
,	O
a	O
gold	O
layer	O
,	O
and	O
an	O
octadecyl	O
mercaptane	O
monolayer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
electronic	O
read-out	O
device	O
with	O
embedded	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
.	I-Application
</s>
<s>
Clinical	B-Algorithm
electrophysiology	I-Algorithm
is	O
the	O
study	O
of	O
how	O
electrophysiological	B-Application
principles	O
and	O
technologies	O
can	O
be	O
applied	O
to	O
human	O
health	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
clinical	B-Algorithm
cardiac	I-Algorithm
electrophysiology	I-Algorithm
is	O
the	O
study	O
of	O
the	O
electrical	O
properties	O
which	O
govern	O
heart	O
rhythm	O
and	O
activity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Cardiac	B-Algorithm
electrophysiology	I-Algorithm
can	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
observe	O
and	O
treat	O
disorders	O
such	O
as	O
arrhythmia	B-Application
(	O
irregular	B-Application
heartbeat	I-Application
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Another	O
example	O
of	O
clinical	B-Algorithm
electrophysiology	I-Algorithm
is	O
clinical	O
neurophysiology	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
"	O
Minimum	O
Information	O
about	O
a	O
Neuroscience	O
investigation	O
"	O
(	O
MINI	O
)	O
family	O
of	O
reporting	O
guideline	O
documents	O
aims	O
to	O
provide	O
a	O
consistent	O
set	O
of	O
guidelines	O
in	O
order	O
to	O
report	O
an	O
electrophysiology	B-Algorithm
experiment	O
.	O
</s>
