<s>
An	O
electric	B-Architecture
vehicle	I-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
(	O
EVB	O
,	O
also	O
known	O
as	O
a	O
traction	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
)	O
is	O
a	O
rechargeable	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
used	O
to	O
power	O
the	O
electric	O
motors	O
of	O
a	O
battery	O
electric	O
vehicle	O
(	O
BEV	O
)	O
or	O
hybrid	O
electric	O
vehicle	O
(	O
HEV	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Electric	B-Architecture
vehicle	I-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
differ	O
from	O
starting	B-Algorithm
,	I-Algorithm
lighting	I-Algorithm
,	I-Algorithm
and	I-Algorithm
ignition	I-Algorithm
(	O
SLI	O
)	O
batteries	O
,	O
as	O
they	O
are	O
typically	O
lithium-ion	O
batteries	O
that	O
are	O
designed	O
for	O
high	O
power-to-weight	O
ratio	O
andenergy	O
density	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Unlike	O
earlier	O
battery	O
chemistries	O
,	O
notably	O
nickel-cadmium	O
,	O
lithium-ion	O
batteries	O
can	O
be	O
discharged	O
and	O
recharged	O
daily	O
and	O
at	O
any	O
state	B-Algorithm
of	I-Algorithm
charge	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Other	O
types	O
of	O
rechargeable	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
used	O
in	O
electric	O
vehicles	O
include	O
lead	B-Device
–	I-Device
acid	I-Device
,	O
nickel-cadmium	O
,	O
nickel	B-Device
–	I-Device
metal	I-Device
hydride	I-Device
,	O
and	O
others	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
,	O
the	O
cost	O
of	O
electric	B-Architecture
vehicle	I-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
has	O
fallen	O
87%	O
since	O
2010	O
on	O
a	O
per	O
kilowatt-hour	O
basis	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Flooded	B-Device
lead-acid	I-Device
batteries	O
are	O
the	O
oldest	O
,	O
cheapest	O
,	O
and	O
,	O
in	O
the	O
past	O
,	O
most	O
common	O
vehicle	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
available	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
two	O
main	O
types	O
of	O
lead-acid	B-Device
batteries	I-Device
:	O
automobile	O
engine	O
starter	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
,	O
and	O
deep	O
cycle	O
batteries	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Automobile	O
engine	O
starter	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
are	O
designed	O
to	O
use	O
a	O
small	O
percentage	O
of	O
their	O
capacity	O
to	O
provide	O
high	O
charge	O
rates	O
to	O
start	O
the	O
engine	O
,	O
while	O
deep	O
cycle	O
batteries	O
are	O
used	O
to	O
provide	O
continuous	O
electricity	O
to	O
run	O
electric	O
vehicles	O
like	O
forklifts	O
or	O
golf	O
carts	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
No	O
lead	B-Device
acid	I-Device
battery	I-Device
should	O
be	O
discharged	O
below	O
50%	O
of	O
its	O
capacity	O
,	O
as	O
it	O
shortens	O
the	O
battery	O
's	O
life	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Previously	O
,	O
most	O
electric	O
vehicles	O
used	O
lead-acid	B-Device
batteries	I-Device
due	O
to	O
their	O
mature	O
technology	O
,	O
high	O
availability	O
,	O
and	O
low	O
cost	O
,	O
with	O
the	O
notable	O
exception	O
of	O
some	O
early	O
BEVs	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
Detroit	O
Electric	O
which	O
used	O
a	O
nickel	O
–	O
iron	O
battery	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Deep-cycle	O
lead	B-Device
batteries	I-Device
are	O
expensive	O
and	O
have	O
a	O
shorter	O
life	O
than	O
the	O
vehicle	O
itself	O
,	O
typically	O
needing	O
replacement	O
every	O
3years	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lead-acid	B-Device
batteries	I-Device
in	O
EV	O
applications	O
end	O
up	O
being	O
a	O
significant	O
(	O
25	O
–	O
50%	O
)	O
portion	O
of	O
the	O
final	O
vehicle	O
mass	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
efficiency	O
(	O
70	O
–	O
75%	O
)	O
and	O
storage	O
capacity	O
of	O
the	O
current	O
generation	O
of	O
common	O
deep	O
cycle	O
lead	B-Device
acid	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
decreases	O
with	O
lower	O
temperatures	O
,	O
and	O
diverting	O
power	O
to	O
run	O
a	O
heating	O
coil	O
reduces	O
efficiency	O
and	O
range	O
by	O
up	O
to	O
40%	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lead-acid	B-Device
batteries	I-Device
powered	O
such	O
early	O
modern	O
EVs	O
as	O
the	O
original	O
versions	O
of	O
the	O
EV1	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Nickel-metal	B-Device
hydride	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
are	O
now	O
considered	O
a	O
relatively	O
mature	O
technology	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
less	O
efficient	O
(	O
60	O
–	O
70%	O
)	O
in	O
charging	O
and	O
discharging	O
than	O
even	O
lead-acid	B-Device
,	O
they	O
have	O
a	O
specific	O
energy	O
of	O
30	O
–	O
80W⋅	O
h/kg	O
,	O
far	O
higher	O
than	O
lead-acid	B-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
used	O
properly	O
,	O
nickel-metal	B-Device
hydride	I-Device
batteries	I-Device
can	O
have	O
exceptionally	O
long	O
lives	O
,	O
as	O
has	O
been	O
demonstrated	O
in	O
their	O
use	O
in	O
hybrid	O
cars	O
and	O
in	O
the	O
surviving	O
first-generation	O
NiMH	B-Device
Toyota	O
RAV4	O
EVs	O
that	O
still	O
operate	O
well	O
after	O
and	O
over	O
a	O
decade	O
of	O
service	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
GM	O
Ovonic	O
produced	O
the	O
NiMH	B-Device
battery	I-Device
used	O
in	O
the	O
second	O
generation	O
EV-1	O
,	O
and	O
Cobasys	O
makes	O
a	O
nearly	O
identical	O
battery	O
(	O
ten	O
1.2V	O
85A⋅h	O
NiMH	B-Device
cells	I-Device
in	O
series	O
in	O
contrast	O
with	O
eleven	O
cells	O
for	O
Ovonic	O
battery	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
New	O
data	O
has	O
shown	O
that	O
exposure	O
to	O
heat	O
and	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
fast	O
charging	O
promote	O
the	O
degradation	O
of	O
Li-ion	O
batteries	O
more	O
than	O
age	O
and	O
actual	O
use	O
,	O
and	O
that	O
the	O
average	O
electric	B-Architecture
vehicle	I-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
will	O
retain	O
90%	O
of	O
its	O
initial	O
capacity	O
after	O
six	O
years	O
and	O
six	O
months	O
of	O
service	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
shown	O
in	O
the	O
schematic	O
of	O
life	O
cycle	O
of	O
EV	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
,	O
during	O
the	O
first	O
stage	O
,	O
the	O
rare	O
earth	O
materials	O
are	O
extracted	O
in	O
different	O
parts	O
of	O
the	O
world	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Not	O
only	O
because	O
of	O
a	O
predicted	O
tightened	O
supply	O
of	O
nickel	O
,	O
cobalt	O
and	O
lithium	O
in	O
the	O
future	O
,	O
also	O
recycling	O
EV	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
has	O
the	O
potential	O
to	O
maximize	O
the	O
environmental	O
benefit	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
To	O
develop	O
a	O
deeper	O
understanding	O
of	O
the	O
lifecycle	O
of	O
EV	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
,	O
it	O
is	O
important	O
to	O
analyze	O
the	O
emission	O
associated	O
with	O
different	O
phases	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
general	O
,	O
in	O
addition	O
to	O
promoting	O
the	O
growth	O
of	O
a	O
single	O
sector	O
,	O
a	O
more	O
integrated	O
effort	O
should	O
be	O
in	O
place	O
to	O
reduce	O
the	O
lifecycle	O
emission	O
of	O
EV	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
mainly	O
three	O
stages	O
during	O
the	O
manufacturing	O
process	O
of	O
EV	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
:	O
materials	O
manufacturing	O
,	O
cell	O
manufacturing	O
and	O
integration	O
,	O
as	O
shown	O
in	O
Manufacturing	O
process	O
of	O
EV	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
graph	O
in	O
grey	O
,	O
green	O
and	O
orange	O
color	O
respectively	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
an	O
EV	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
pack	O
degrades	O
to	O
70%	O
to	O
80%	O
of	O
its	O
original	O
capacity	O
,	O
it	O
is	O
defined	O
to	O
reach	O
the	O
end-of-life	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Currently	O
,	O
the	O
state	O
of	O
health	O
(	O
SOH	O
)	O
information	O
from	O
a	O
battery	B-Algorithm
management	I-Algorithm
system	I-Algorithm
(	O
BMS	O
)	O
can	O
be	O
extracted	O
on	O
a	O
pack	O
level	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
important	O
to	O
note	O
that	O
qualified	O
workers	O
and	O
specialized	O
tools	O
are	O
required	O
to	O
dismantle	O
the	O
high	O
weight	O
and	O
high	O
voltage	O
EV	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Nonetheless	O
,	O
there	O
have	O
been	O
several	O
successes	O
on	O
the	O
second-life	O
application	O
as	O
shown	O
in	O
the	O
examples	O
of	O
storage	O
projects	O
using	O
second-life	O
EV	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Although	O
battery	O
life	O
span	O
can	O
be	O
extended	O
by	O
enabling	O
a	O
second-life	O
application	O
,	O
ultimately	O
EV	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
need	O
to	O
be	O
recycled	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Recyclability	O
is	O
not	O
currently	O
an	O
important	O
design	O
consideration	O
for	O
battery	O
manufacturers	O
,	O
and	O
in	O
2019	O
only	O
5%	O
of	O
electric	B-Architecture
vehicle	I-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
were	O
recycled	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2010	O
,	O
scientists	O
at	O
the	O
Technical	O
University	O
of	O
Denmark	O
paid	O
US$	O
10,000	O
for	O
a	O
certified	O
EV	B-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
with	O
25kWh	O
capacity	O
(	O
i.e.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
MIT	O
Technology	O
Review	O
estimated	O
the	O
cost	O
of	O
automotive	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
packs	O
to	O
be	O
between	O
to	O
per	O
kilowatt	O
hour	O
by	O
2020	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
BNEF	O
expects	O
electric	O
car	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
costs	O
to	O
be	O
well	O
below	O
/kWh	O
by	O
2030	O
,	O
and	O
to	O
fall	O
further	O
thereafter	O
as	O
new	O
chemistries	O
become	O
available	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
United	O
States	O
Secretary	O
of	O
Energy	O
Steven	O
Chu	O
predicted	O
costs	O
for	O
a	O
40-mile	O
range	O
battery	O
will	O
drop	O
from	O
a	O
price	O
in	O
2008	O
of	O
US$	O
12,000	O
to	O
US$	O
3,600	O
in	O
2015	O
and	O
further	O
to	O
US$	O
1,500	O
by	O
2020	O
.	O
lithium-ion	O
,	O
Li-poly	O
,	O
Aluminium-air	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
and	O
zinc-air	B-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
have	O
demonstrated	O
specific	O
energies	O
high	O
enough	O
to	O
deliver	O
range	O
and	O
recharge	B-Architecture
times	O
comparable	O
to	O
conventional	O
fossil	O
fueled	O
vehicles	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Higher	O
range	O
means	O
that	O
the	O
electric	O
vehicles	O
would	O
run	O
more	O
kilometers	O
without	O
recharge	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Japanese	O
and	O
European	O
Union	O
officials	O
are	O
in	O
talks	O
to	O
jointly	O
develop	O
advanced	O
rechargeable	B-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
for	O
electric	O
cars	O
to	O
help	O
nations	O
reduce	O
greenhouse-gas	O
emissions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
lithium-ion	O
battery	O
in	O
the	O
AC	O
Propulsion	O
tzero	O
provides	O
of	O
range	O
per	O
charge	O
(	O
single	B-Architecture
charge	I-Architecture
range	I-Architecture
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
most	O
cases	O
,	O
modules	O
also	O
allow	O
for	O
monitoring	O
the	O
voltage	O
produced	O
by	O
each	O
battery	O
cell	O
in	O
the	O
stack	O
by	O
using	O
a	O
battery	B-Algorithm
management	I-Algorithm
system	I-Algorithm
(	O
BMS	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Collection	O
of	O
data	O
from	O
the	O
pack	O
sensors	O
and	O
activation	O
of	O
the	O
pack	O
relays	O
are	O
accomplished	O
by	O
the	O
pack	O
's	O
battery	B-Algorithm
monitoring	I-Algorithm
unit	O
(	O
BMU	O
)	O
or	O
BMS	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Electric	O
cars	O
like	O
Tesla	O
Model	O
S	O
,	O
Renault	O
Zoe	O
,	O
BMW	O
i3	O
,	O
etc.	O
,	O
can	O
recharge	B-Architecture
their	O
batteries	O
to	O
80	O
percent	O
at	O
quick	O
charging	O
stations	O
within	O
30	O
minutes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
a	O
Tesla	O
Model	O
3	O
Long	O
Range	O
charging	O
on	O
a	O
250kW	O
Tesla	O
Version	O
3	O
Supercharger	O
went	O
from	O
2%	O
state	B-Algorithm
of	I-Algorithm
charge	I-Algorithm
with	O
of	O
range	O
to	O
80%	O
state	B-Algorithm
of	I-Algorithm
charge	I-Algorithm
with	O
of	O
range	O
in	O
27	O
minutes	O
,	O
which	O
equates	O
to	O
per	O
hour	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
second	O
approach	O
is	O
known	O
as	O
inductive	B-Application
charging	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
paddle	O
is	O
one	O
winding	O
of	O
a	O
transformer	B-Algorithm
,	O
while	O
the	O
other	O
is	O
built	O
into	O
the	O
car	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
one	O
inductive	B-Application
charging	I-Application
system	O
,	O
one	O
winding	O
is	O
attached	O
to	O
the	O
underside	O
of	O
the	O
car	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
other	O
stays	O
on	O
the	O
floor	O
of	O
the	O
garage	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Inductive	B-Application
charging	I-Application
can	O
also	O
reduce	O
vehicle	O
weight	O
,	O
by	O
moving	O
more	O
charging	O
componentry	O
offboard	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
inductive	B-Application
charging	I-Application
advocate	O
from	O
Toyota	O
contended	O
in	O
1998	O
,	O
that	O
overall	O
cost	O
differences	O
were	O
minimal	O
,	O
while	O
a	O
conductive	O
charging	O
advocate	O
from	O
Ford	O
contended	O
that	O
conductive	O
charging	O
was	O
more	O
cost	O
efficient	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lead-acid	B-Device
batteries	I-Device
are	O
the	O
most	O
available	O
and	O
inexpensive	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Production	O
EVs	O
with	O
lead-acid	B-Device
batteries	I-Device
are	O
capable	O
of	O
up	O
to	O
per	O
charge	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
NiMH	B-Device
batteries	I-Device
have	O
higher	O
specific	O
energy	O
than	O
lead-acid	B-Device
;	O
prototype	O
EVs	O
deliver	O
up	O
to	O
of	O
range	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Zinc-bromine	B-Algorithm
flow	I-Algorithm
batteries	I-Algorithm
can	O
be	O
re-filled	O
using	O
a	O
liquid	O
,	O
instead	O
of	O
recharged	O
by	O
connectors	O
,	O
saving	O
time	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Smart	B-Architecture
grid	I-Architecture
allows	O
BEVs	O
to	O
provide	O
power	O
to	O
the	O
grid	O
at	O
any	O
time	O
,	O
especially	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
safety	O
issues	O
of	O
battery	O
electric	O
vehicles	O
are	O
largely	O
dealt	O
with	O
by	O
the	O
international	O
standard	O
ISO	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
patents	O
relevant	O
to	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
Nickel	B-Device
metal	I-Device
hydride	I-Device
cells	O
in	O
cars	O
were	O
held	O
by	O
an	O
offshoot	O
of	O
Chevron	O
Corporation	O
,	O
a	O
petroleum	O
company	O
,	O
who	O
maintained	O
veto	O
power	O
over	O
any	O
sale	O
or	O
licensing	O
of	O
NiMH	B-Device
technology	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Europe	O
has	O
plans	O
for	O
heavy	O
investment	O
in	O
electric	B-Architecture
vehicle	I-Architecture
battery	I-Architecture
development	O
and	O
production	O
,	O
and	O
Indonesia	O
also	O
aims	O
to	O
produce	O
electric	B-Architecture
vehicle	I-Architecture
batteries	I-Architecture
in	O
2023	O
,	O
inviting	O
Chinese	O
battery	O
firm	O
GEM	O
and	O
Contemporary	O
Amperex	O
Technology	O
Ltd	O
to	O
invest	O
in	O
Indonesia	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Deputy	O
Secretary	O
of	O
the	O
Department	O
of	O
Transportation	O
John	O
Porcari	O
visited	O
East	O
Penn	O
Manufacturing	O
Co	O
,	O
in	O
Lyon	O
Station	O
,	O
Pennsylvania	O
,	O
to	O
award	O
the	O
company	O
a	O
US	O
$32.5	O
million	O
grant	O
to	O
increase	O
production	O
capacity	O
for	O
their	O
valve	O
regulated	O
lead-acid	B-Device
batteries	I-Device
and	O
the	O
UltraBattery	O
,	O
a	O
lead-acid	B-Device
battery	I-Device
combined	O
with	O
a	O
carbon	O
supercapacitor	O
,	O
for	O
micro	O
and	O
mild	O
hybrid	O
applications	O
.	O
</s>
