<s>
Digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
is	O
a	O
multidisciplinary	O
concept	O
derived	O
from	O
the	O
legal	O
concept	O
of	O
self-determination	O
and	O
applied	O
to	O
the	O
digital	O
sphere	O
,	O
to	O
address	O
the	O
unique	O
challenges	O
to	O
individual	O
and	O
collective	O
agency	O
and	O
autonomy	O
arising	O
with	O
increasing	O
digitalization	B-General_Concept
of	O
many	O
aspects	O
of	O
society	O
and	O
daily	O
life	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
is	O
no	O
philosophically	O
or	O
legally	O
agreed-upon	O
concept	O
of	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
yet	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
concept	O
of	O
informational	O
self-determination	O
(	O
informational	O
Selbstbestimmung	O
)	O
,	O
considered	O
as	O
a	O
modern	O
fundamental	O
right	O
which	O
protects	O
against	O
unjustified	O
data	O
processing	O
,	O
has	O
featured	O
prominently	O
in	O
the	O
German	O
Federal	O
Constitutional	O
Court	O
's	O
(	O
Bundesverfassungsgericht	O
)	O
jurisprudence	O
and	O
might	O
be	O
the	O
most	O
direct	O
precursor	O
and	O
inspiration	O
to	O
the	O
concept	O
of	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Moreover	O
,	O
the	O
digital	B-General_Concept
transformation	I-General_Concept
has	O
enabled	O
,	O
oftentimes	O
unbeknownst	O
to	O
individuals	O
,	O
the	O
mass	O
collection	O
,	O
analysis	O
,	O
and	O
harvesting	O
of	O
personal	O
data	O
by	O
private	O
companies	O
and	O
governments	O
to	O
infer	O
individuals	O
 '	O
information	O
and	O
preferences	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
by	O
tracking	O
browsing	O
and	O
shopping	O
history	O
)	O
,	O
influence	O
opinions	O
and	O
behavior	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
through	O
filter	B-Algorithm
bubbles	I-Algorithm
and	O
targeted	O
advertisements	O
)	O
,	O
and/or	O
to	O
make	O
decisions	O
about	O
them	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
approving	O
or	O
not	O
a	O
loan	O
or	O
employment	O
application	O
)	O
,	O
thus	O
posing	O
new	O
threats	O
to	O
individuals	O
 '	O
privacy	O
and	O
autonomy	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Although	O
the	O
definition	O
of	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
is	O
still	O
evolving	O
,	O
the	O
term	O
has	O
been	O
used	O
to	O
address	O
humans	O
 '	O
capacity	O
(	O
or	O
lack	O
thereof	O
)	O
to	O
exercise	O
self-determination	O
in	O
their	O
existence	O
in	O
and	O
usage	O
of	O
digital	O
media	O
,	O
spaces	O
,	O
networks	O
,	O
and	O
technologies	O
,	O
with	O
the	O
protection	O
of	O
the	O
potential	O
for	O
human	O
flourishing	O
in	O
the	O
digital	O
world	O
as	O
one	O
of	O
the	O
chief	O
concerns	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Starting	O
in	O
the	O
2010s	O
,	O
a	O
few	O
multidisciplinary	O
and	O
cross-sectoral	O
initiatives	O
around	O
the	O
world	O
have	O
been	O
working	O
on	O
developing	O
a	O
theoretical	O
framework	O
for	O
the	O
concept	O
of	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2015	O
,	O
the	O
Cologne	O
Center	O
for	O
Ethics	O
,	O
Rights	O
,	O
Economics	O
,	O
and	O
Social	O
Sciences	O
of	O
Health	O
,	O
housed	O
at	O
the	O
University	O
of	O
Cologne	O
(	O
CERES	O
)	O
,	O
conducted	O
a	O
study	O
to	O
help	O
define	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
and	O
develop	O
metrics	O
to	O
measure	O
its	O
fulfillment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Their	O
study	O
report	O
defines	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
as	O
"	O
the	O
concrete	O
development	O
of	O
a	O
human	O
personality	O
or	O
the	O
possibility	O
of	O
realizing	O
one	O
's	O
own	O
plans	O
of	O
action	O
and	O
decisions	O
to	O
act	O
,	O
insofar	O
as	O
this	O
relates	O
to	O
the	O
conscious	O
use	O
of	O
digital	O
media	O
or	O
is	O
(	O
co	O
-	O
)	O
dependent	O
on	O
the	O
existence	O
or	O
functioning	O
of	O
digital	O
media	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2018	O
,	O
the	O
Swiss	O
government	O
launched	O
a	O
Digital	B-General_Concept
Self-Determination	I-General_Concept
network	O
in	O
response	O
to	O
the	O
action	O
plan	O
for	O
the	O
Federal	O
Council	O
's	O
'	O
Digital	O
Switzerland	O
 '	O
strategy	O
,	O
including	O
representatives	O
from	O
the	O
Swiss	O
Federal	O
Administration	O
,	O
academia	O
,	O
civil	O
society	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
private	O
sector	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
work	O
of	O
this	O
network	O
conceptualizes	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
as	O
"	O
a	O
way	O
of	O
enhancing	O
trust	O
into	O
digital	B-General_Concept
transformation	I-General_Concept
while	O
allowing	O
all	O
actors	O
of	O
society	O
to	O
benefit	O
from	O
the	O
potential	O
of	O
the	O
data	O
economy	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
work	O
proposes	O
that	O
the	O
core	O
principles	O
of	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
are	O
transparency	O
and	O
trust	O
,	O
control	O
and	O
self-determined	O
data	O
sharing	O
,	O
user-oriented	O
data	O
spaces	O
,	O
and	O
decentralized	O
data	O
spaces	O
that	O
operate	O
in	O
proximity	O
to	O
citizens	O
 '	O
needs	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
work	O
of	O
the	O
network	O
aims	O
"	O
to	O
create	O
an	O
international	O
network	O
that	O
represents	O
the	O
basic	O
principles	O
of	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
and	O
on	O
this	O
basis	O
will	O
elaborate	O
best	O
practices	O
,	O
standards	O
,	O
and	O
agreements	O
to	O
develop	O
international	O
data	O
spaces	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2021	O
,	O
the	O
French	O
Telecoms	O
Regulator	O
(	O
ARCEP	O
)	O
referred	O
to	O
the	O
concept	O
of	O
Digital	B-General_Concept
Self-determination	I-General_Concept
in	O
its	O
official	O
annual	O
report	O
dedicated	O
to	O
"	O
The	O
State	O
of	O
the	O
Internet	O
"	O
,	O
drawing	O
on	O
the	O
IGF	O
output	O
document	O
report	O
on	O
""	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2021	O
,	O
the	O
Centre	O
of	O
AI	B-Application
&	O
Data	O
Governance	O
at	O
Singapore	O
Management	O
University	O
launched	O
a	O
major	O
research	O
project	O
focusing	O
on	O
the	O
concept	O
of	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
,	O
in	O
collaboration	O
with	O
the	O
Swiss	O
government	O
and	O
other	O
research	O
partners	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Their	O
theoretical	O
framework	O
focuses	O
on	O
data	O
governance	O
and	O
privacy	O
,	O
and	O
proposes	O
that	O
the	O
core	O
components	O
of	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
are	O
the	O
empowerment	O
of	O
data	O
subjects	O
to	O
oversee	O
their	O
sense	O
of	O
self	O
in	O
the	O
digital	O
sphere	O
,	O
their	O
ability	O
to	O
govern	O
their	O
data	O
,	O
consent	O
as	O
a	O
cornerstone	O
of	O
privacy	O
and	O
data	O
protection	O
,	O
protection	O
against	O
data	O
malfeasance	O
,	O
and	O
accuracy	O
and	O
authenticity	O
of	O
the	O
data	O
collected	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
proposed	O
framework	O
also	O
emphasizes	O
that	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
refers	O
to	O
both	O
individuals	O
and	O
collectives	O
and	O
that	O
the	O
concept	O
should	O
be	O
understood	O
in	O
the	O
context	O
of	O
"	O
rights	O
dependent	O
on	O
duties	O
"	O
and	O
in	O
parallel	O
to	O
concepts	O
of	O
a	O
social	O
or	O
relational	O
self	O
,	O
social	O
responsibility	O
,	O
and	O
digital	O
solidarity	O
(	O
see	O
below	O
:	O
3.1	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2021	O
,	O
the	O
Digital	O
Asia	O
Hub	O
in	O
collaboration	O
with	O
the	O
Berkman	O
Klein	O
Center	O
at	O
Harvard	O
University	O
and	O
the	O
Global	O
Network	O
of	O
Internet	O
&	O
Society	O
Centers	O
,	O
conducted	O
a	O
research	O
sprint	O
to	O
explore	O
the	O
concept	O
of	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
from	O
different	O
perspectives	O
and	O
across	O
cultural	O
contexts	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
initiative	O
approached	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
"	O
as	O
an	O
enabler	O
of	O
-	O
or	O
at	O
least	O
contributor	O
-	O
to	O
the	O
exercise	O
of	O
autonomy	O
and	O
agency	O
in	O
the	O
face	O
of	O
shrinking	O
choices	O
"	O
,	O
to	O
address	O
questions	O
of	O
control	O
,	O
power	O
,	O
and	O
equity	O
"	O
in	O
a	O
world	O
that	O
is	O
increasingly	O
constructed	O
,	O
mediated	O
,	O
and	O
at	O
times	O
even	O
dominated	O
by	O
digital	O
technologies	O
and	O
digital	O
media	O
,	O
including	O
the	O
underlying	O
infrastructures.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
addition	O
to	O
the	O
work	O
of	O
governments	O
and	O
research	O
centers	O
,	O
civil	O
society	O
members	O
have	O
also	O
advocated	O
for	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Article	O
2	O
of	O
this	O
proposal	O
is	O
entitled	O
"	O
right	O
to	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
"	O
,	O
and	O
proposed	O
that	O
"	O
Everyone	O
has	O
the	O
right	O
to	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
October	O
2021	O
,	O
an	O
International	O
Network	O
on	O
Digital	B-General_Concept
Self-Determination	I-General_Concept
was	O
created	O
with	O
the	O
intention	O
of	O
"	O
bringing	O
together	O
diverse	O
perspectives	O
from	O
different	O
fields	O
around	O
the	O
world	O
to	O
study	O
and	O
design	O
ways	O
to	O
engage	O
in	O
trustworthy	O
data	O
spaces	O
and	O
ensure	O
human	O
centric	O
approaches.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
network	O
is	O
composed	O
of	O
experts	O
from	O
the	O
Directorate	O
of	O
International	O
Law	O
of	O
the	O
Swiss	O
Federal	O
Department	O
of	O
Foreign	O
Affairs	O
;	O
the	O
Centre	O
for	O
Artificial	B-Application
Intelligence	I-Application
and	O
Data	O
Governance	O
at	O
Singapore	O
Management	O
University	O
;	O
the	O
Berkman	O
Klein	O
Center	O
at	O
Harvard	O
University	O
;	O
the	O
Global	O
Tech	O
Policy	O
Practice	O
at	O
the	O
TUM	O
School	O
of	O
Social	O
Sciences	O
and	O
Technology	O
and	O
The	O
GovLab	O
at	O
New	O
York	O
University	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
this	O
sense	O
,	O
the	O
concept	O
of	O
Digital	B-General_Concept
Self-determination	I-General_Concept
overlaps	O
with	O
the	O
concept	O
of	O
"	O
Network	O
Self-determination	O
"	O
as	O
it	O
emphases	O
that	O
groups	O
of	O
unconnected	O
and	O
scarcely	O
connected	O
individuals	O
can	O
regain	O
control	O
over	O
digital	O
infrastructures	O
,	O
by	O
building	O
them	O
and	O
shaping	O
the	O
governance	O
framework	O
that	O
will	O
organise	O
them	O
as	O
a	O
common	O
good	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Internet	O
activist	O
Eli	O
Pariser	O
coined	O
the	O
term	O
filter	B-Algorithm
bubble	I-Algorithm
to	O
refer	O
to	O
the	O
reduced	O
availability	O
of	O
divergent	O
opinions	O
and	O
realities	O
that	O
we	O
encounter	O
online	O
as	O
a	O
consequence	O
of	O
personalization	O
algorithms	O
like	O
personalized	B-Application
search	I-Application
and	O
recommendation	B-Application
systems	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Filter	B-Algorithm
bubbles	I-Algorithm
have	O
been	O
suggested	O
to	O
facilitate	O
a	O
warped	O
understanding	O
of	O
others	O
 '	O
points	O
of	O
view	O
and	O
the	O
world	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Ensuring	O
a	O
wide	O
representation	O
of	O
diverse	O
realities	O
on	O
digital	O
platforms	O
could	O
be	O
a	O
way	O
of	O
increasing	O
exposure	O
to	O
conflicting	O
viewpoints	O
and	O
avoiding	O
intellectual	O
isolation	O
into	O
informational	B-Algorithm
bubbles	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Scholar	O
Shoshana	O
Zuboff	O
popularized	O
the	O
term	O
surveillance	B-General_Concept
capitalism	I-General_Concept
to	O
refer	O
to	O
the	O
private	O
sector	O
's	O
commodification	O
of	O
users	O
 '	O
personal	O
data	O
for	O
profit	O
(	O
e.g.	O
</s>
<s>
Surveillance	B-General_Concept
capitalism	I-General_Concept
relies	O
on	O
centralized	O
data	O
management	O
models	O
wherein	O
private	O
companies	O
retain	O
ownership	O
and	O
control	O
over	O
the	O
users	O
 '	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Developments	O
in	O
this	O
area	O
vary	O
greatly	O
across	O
countries	O
and	O
regions	O
where	O
there	O
are	O
different	O
privacy	O
frameworks	O
and	O
big	O
data	O
policies	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
European	O
Union	O
's	O
General	O
Data	O
Protection	O
Regulation	O
and	O
China	O
's	O
Social	B-Application
Credit	I-Application
System	I-Application
,	O
which	O
approach	O
personal	O
data	O
distinctly	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Other	O
debates	O
range	O
from	O
whether	O
individual	O
agency	O
in	O
decision-making	O
can	O
be	O
undermined	O
by	O
predictive	B-General_Concept
algorithms	I-General_Concept
;	O
whether	O
an	O
individual	O
labor	O
,	O
particularly	O
in	O
the	O
Global	O
South	O
,	O
may	O
encounter	O
new	O
employment	O
opportunities	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
unique	O
vulnerabilities	O
in	O
the	O
digital	O
economy	O
;	O
whether	O
an	O
individual	O
's	O
self-expression	O
may	O
be	O
unduly	O
and	O
discriminately	O
policed	O
by	O
surveillance	O
technologies	O
deployed	O
in	O
smart	B-Device
cities	I-Device
,	O
particularly	O
those	O
integrating	O
facial	O
recognition	O
and	O
emotion	O
recognition	O
capabilities	O
which	O
run	O
on	O
biometric	O
data	O
,	O
as	O
a	O
form	O
of	O
digital	O
panopticon	B-Application
;	O
and	O
whether	O
an	O
individual	O
's	O
access	O
to	O
diverse	O
information	O
may	O
be	O
affected	O
by	O
the	O
digital	O
divide	O
and	O
dominance	O
of	O
centralized	O
online	O
platforms	O
,	O
potentially	O
limiting	O
one	O
's	O
capacity	O
to	O
imagine	O
his	O
or	O
her	O
identity	O
and	O
make	O
informed	O
decisions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Use	O
of	O
predictive	B-General_Concept
analytics	I-General_Concept
and	O
tracking	O
software	O
systems	O
can	O
impact	O
children	O
's	O
digital	O
and	O
real	O
life	O
choices	O
by	O
exploiting	O
massive	O
profiling	O
practices	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
turns	O
out	O
that	O
with	O
the	O
proliferation	O
of	O
mass	O
surveillance	O
and	O
predictive	B-General_Concept
analytics	I-General_Concept
,	O
new	O
disputes	O
are	O
on	O
the	O
way	O
for	O
states	O
to	O
protect	O
children	O
's	O
very	O
innate	O
rights	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
following	O
functions	O
are	O
dominated	O
by	O
a	O
handful	O
of	O
multinational	O
companies	O
:	O
search	O
engines	O
(	O
Google	O
)	O
;	O
web	O
browsers	O
(	O
Google	O
Chrome	O
)	O
;	O
smartphone	O
and	O
tablet	O
operating	O
systems	O
(	O
Google	O
Android	O
,	O
Apple	O
iOS	O
)	O
;	O
desktop	O
and	O
laptop	O
operating	O
systems	O
(	O
Microsoft	O
Windows	O
)	O
;	O
office	O
software	O
(	O
Microsoft	O
Office	O
,	O
Google	O
Docs	O
)	O
;	O
cloud	O
infrastructure	O
and	O
services	O
(	O
Amazon	B-Application
,	O
Microsoft	O
,	O
Google	O
,	O
IBM	O
)	O
;	O
social	O
networking	O
platforms	O
(	O
Facebook	O
,	O
Twitter	O
)	O
;	O
transportation	O
(	O
Uber	O
,	O
Lyft	O
)	O
;	O
business	O
networking	O
(	O
Microsoft	O
LinkedIn	O
)	O
;	O
streaming	O
video	O
(	O
Google	O
YouTube	O
,	O
Netflix	O
,	O
Hulu	O
)	O
;	O
and	O
online	O
advertising	O
(	O
Google	O
,	O
Facebook	O
)	O
–	O
among	O
others	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
Code	O
:	O
And	O
Other	O
Laws	O
of	O
Cyberspace	B-General_Concept
,	O
Lawrence	O
Lessig	O
famously	O
argued	O
that	O
computer	O
code	O
shapes	O
the	O
rules	O
,	O
norms	O
,	O
and	O
behaviors	O
of	O
computer-mediated	O
experiences	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Indigenous	O
peoples	O
are	O
asserting	O
their	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
by	O
using	O
these	O
platforms	O
to	O
build	O
online	O
communities	O
,	O
express	O
virtual	O
identities	O
,	O
and	O
represent	O
their	O
culture	O
virtually	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Digital	O
apartheid	O
has	O
also	O
been	O
a	O
key	O
concept	O
in	O
debates	O
around	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
authors	O
such	O
as	O
Christian	O
Fuchs	O
,	O
digital	O
apartheid	O
means	O
that	O
"	O
certain	O
groups	O
and	O
regions	O
of	O
the	O
world	O
are	O
systematically	O
excluded	O
from	O
cyberspace	B-General_Concept
and	O
the	O
benefits	O
that	O
it	O
can	O
create.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
Brown	O
and	O
Czerniewicz	O
(	O
2010	O
)	O
,	O
drawing	O
on	O
a	O
research	O
project	O
interrogating	O
the	O
access	O
of	O
higher	O
education	O
students	O
in	O
South	O
Africa	O
to	O
Information	B-General_Concept
and	I-General_Concept
Communications	I-General_Concept
Technology	I-General_Concept
(	O
ICT	B-General_Concept
)	O
,	O
highlight	O
that	O
while	O
age	O
or	O
generational	O
aspects	O
have	O
been	O
a	O
characteristic	O
of	O
digital	O
divides	O
,	O
now	O
the	O
latter	O
are	O
rather	O
a	O
question	O
of	O
access	O
and	O
opportunity	O
,	O
claiming	O
that	O
in	O
the	O
present	O
day	O
"	O
digital	O
apartheid	O
is	O
alive	O
and	O
well.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
skills	O
dimension	O
emerges	O
from	O
an	O
understanding	O
where	O
ICT	B-General_Concept
lessons	O
were	O
not	O
a	O
part	O
of	O
the	O
curriculum	O
until	O
recently	O
and	O
therefore	O
the	O
skill	O
development	O
remained	O
underexposed	O
and	O
restricted	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Low	O
speed	O
2G	O
internet	O
was	O
restored	O
in	O
January	O
2020	O
while	O
high	O
speed	O
4G	B-Architecture
internet	I-Architecture
was	O
restored	O
in	O
February	O
2021	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
systematic	O
censorship	O
and	O
deprivation	O
not	O
only	O
resulted	O
in	O
excluding	O
the	O
people	O
,	O
collectively	O
,	O
from	O
participating	O
in	O
cyberspace	B-General_Concept
,	O
but	O
as	O
was	O
evident	O
,	O
it	O
crippled	O
IT	O
companies	O
and	O
startups	O
in	O
Kashmir	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Promoting	O
concepts	O
and	O
rights	O
which	O
are	O
closely	O
related	O
to	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
is	O
a	O
common	O
goal	O
behind	O
regulatory	O
initiatives	O
in	O
various	O
legal	O
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Stemming	O
from	O
the	O
conceptual	O
framework	O
of	O
human	O
rights	O
,	O
and	O
a	O
well-established	O
notion	O
of	O
informational	O
self-determination	O
,	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
gradually	O
comes	O
to	O
play	O
an	O
increasingly	O
important	O
role	O
as	O
a	O
concept	O
that	O
encompasses	O
values	O
and	O
virtues	O
which	O
remain	O
highly	O
relevant	O
in	O
the	O
context	O
of	O
the	O
global	O
network	O
society	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
autonomy	O
,	O
dignity	O
,	O
and	O
freedom	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
EU	O
's	O
legal	O
policy	O
,	O
while	O
not	O
explicitly	O
referencing	O
a	O
right	O
to	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
,	O
pursues	O
closely	O
related	O
objectives	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
main	O
provisions	O
relating	O
to	O
the	O
concept	O
of	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
include	O
principles	O
of	O
data	O
processing	O
(	O
e.g.	O
</s>
<s>
,	O
a	O
legislative	O
proposal	O
aimed	O
at	O
providing	O
developers	O
,	O
deployers	O
,	O
and	O
users	O
with	O
clear	O
requirements	O
and	O
obligations	O
regarding	O
specific	O
uses	O
of	O
AI	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
a	O
catalog	O
of	O
prohibited	O
AI	B-Application
practices	O
that	O
distort	O
the	O
behavior	O
of	O
the	O
individual	O
in	O
a	O
manner	O
that	O
can	O
lead	O
to	O
physical	O
or	O
mental	O
harm	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
proliferation	O
of	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
(	O
AI	B-Application
)	O
,	O
as	O
not	O
a	O
single	O
technology	O
but	O
rather	O
a	O
set	O
of	O
technologies	O
,	O
is	O
increasingly	O
shaping	O
the	O
technologically-mediated	O
spaces	O
for	O
individuals	O
and	O
communities	O
to	O
conduct	O
their	O
lives	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
From	O
algorithmic	O
recommendation	O
in	O
e-commerce	O
and	O
social	O
media	O
platforms	O
,	O
smart	O
surveillance	O
in	O
policing	O
,	O
to	O
automated	O
resources	O
allocation	O
in	O
public	O
services	O
,	O
the	O
extent	O
of	O
possible	O
AI	B-Application
applications	O
that	O
can	O
influence	O
an	O
individual	O
's	O
autonomy	O
is	O
continuously	O
contested	O
,	O
considering	O
the	O
widespread	O
datafication	B-General_Concept
of	O
people	O
's	O
lives	O
across	O
the	O
socio-economic	O
and	O
political	O
spheres	O
today	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
machine	O
learning	O
,	O
a	O
subfield	O
of	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
,	O
"	O
allows	O
us	O
to	O
extract	O
information	O
from	O
data	O
and	O
discover	O
new	O
patterns	O
,	O
and	O
is	O
able	O
to	O
turn	O
seemingly	O
innocuous	O
data	O
into	O
sensitive	O
,	O
personal	O
data	O
"	O
,	O
meaning	O
an	O
individual	O
's	O
privacy	O
and	O
anonymity	O
may	O
be	O
prone	O
to	O
vulnerabilities	O
outside	O
of	O
the	O
original	O
data	O
domain	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
having	O
their	O
social	O
media	O
data	O
harvested	O
for	O
computational	O
propaganda	O
in	O
the	O
election	O
based	O
on	O
micro-targeting	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Another	O
sphere	O
where	O
AI	B-Application
systems	O
can	O
affect	O
the	O
exercising	O
of	O
self-determination	O
is	O
when	O
the	O
datasets	O
on	O
which	O
algorithms	O
are	O
trained	O
mirror	O
the	O
existing	O
structures	O
of	O
inequality	O
,	O
thereby	O
reinforcing	O
structural	O
discrimination	O
that	O
limits	O
certain	O
groups	O
 '	O
access	O
to	O
fair	O
treatment	O
and	O
opportunities	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
,	O
an	O
AI	B-Application
recruiting	O
tool	O
used	O
by	O
Amazon	B-Application
has	O
shown	O
to	O
discriminate	O
against	O
female	O
job	O
applicants	O
,	O
while	O
an	O
AI-based	B-Application
modelling	O
tool	O
used	O
by	O
the	O
Department	O
of	O
Human	O
Services	O
in	O
Allegheny	O
County	O
,	O
Pennsylvania	O
,	O
to	O
flag	O
potential	O
child	O
abuse	O
has	O
shown	O
to	O
disproportionately	O
profile	O
the	O
poor	O
and	O
racial	O
minority	O
,	O
raising	O
questions	O
about	O
how	O
predictive	O
variables	O
in	O
algorithms	O
could	O
often	O
be	O
"	O
abstractions	O
"	O
that	O
"	O
reflect	O
priorities	O
and	O
preoccupations	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
How	O
states	O
attempt	O
to	O
govern	O
the	O
AI	B-Application
industry	O
can	O
shape	O
how	O
AI	B-Application
applications	O
are	O
developed	O
,	O
tested	O
and	O
operated	O
and	O
in	O
what	O
ethical	O
frameworks	O
relevant	O
to	O
many	O
forms	O
of	O
human	O
interests	O
,	O
thereby	O
affecting	O
the	O
degree	O
of	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
exercised	O
by	O
individuals	O
and	O
communities	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Compared	O
to	O
the	O
binding	O
laws	O
enacted	O
by	O
states	O
,	O
the	O
landscape	O
of	O
AI	B-Application
ethics	O
principles	O
paints	O
a	O
more	O
diverse	O
picture	O
,	O
with	O
governmental	O
and	O
nongovernmental	O
organisations	O
including	O
private	O
companies	O
,	O
academic	O
institutions	O
and	O
civic	O
society	O
actively	O
developing	O
the	O
ecosystem	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
2020	O
report	O
by	O
the	O
United	O
Nations	O
identified	O
"	O
over	O
160	O
organizational	O
,	O
national	O
and	O
international	O
sets	O
of	O
AI	B-Application
ethics	O
and	O
governance	O
principles	O
worldwide	O
,	O
although	O
there	O
is	O
no	O
common	O
platform	O
to	O
bring	O
these	O
separate	O
initiatives	O
together	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Common	O
themes	O
of	O
AI	B-Application
principles	O
have	O
been	O
emerging	O
as	O
research	O
efforts	O
develop	O
,	O
with	O
many	O
closely	O
linked	O
to	O
the	O
various	O
conditions	O
of	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
,	O
such	O
as	O
control	O
over	O
one	O
's	O
data	O
,	O
protection	O
from	O
biased	O
treatment	O
,	O
and	O
equal	O
access	O
to	O
the	O
benefits	O
offered	O
by	O
AI	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
2020	O
publication	O
by	O
the	O
Berkman	O
Klein	O
Center	O
for	O
Internet	O
and	O
Society	O
at	O
Harvard	O
University	O
studied	O
thirty-six	O
"	O
especially	O
visible	O
or	O
influential	O
"	O
AI	B-Application
principles	O
documents	O
authored	O
by	O
government	O
and	O
non-governmental	O
actors	O
from	O
multiple	O
geographical	O
regions	O
,	O
and	O
identified	O
eight	O
key	O
themes	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
Currently	O
,	O
few	O
AI	B-Application
governance	O
principles	O
are	O
internationally	O
recognised	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
"	O
OECD	O
Principles	O
on	O
AI	B-Application
"	O
,	O
adopted	O
by	O
OECD	O
Member	O
States	O
and	O
nine	O
other	O
non-OECD	O
countries	O
in	O
May	O
2019	O
,	O
integrates	O
elements	O
relevant	O
to	O
digital	B-General_Concept
self-determination	I-General_Concept
such	O
as	O
"	O
inclusive	O
growth	O
"	O
,	O
"	O
well-being	O
"	O
,	O
"	O
human-centered	O
values	O
and	O
fairness	O
"	O
,	O
while	O
emphasizing	O
an	O
individual	O
's	O
ability	O
to	O
appeal	O
and	O
"	O
challenge	O
the	O
outcome	O
of	O
AI	B-Application
system	O
"	O
and	O
the	O
adherence	O
of	O
AI	B-Application
development	O
to	O
"	O
internationally	O
recognized	O
labour	O
rights	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
On	O
a	O
national	O
level	O
,	O
numerous	O
state	O
AI	B-Application
policies	O
make	O
reference	O
to	O
AI	B-Application
ethics	O
principles	O
,	O
though	O
in	O
an	O
irregular	O
fashion	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
Japan	O
's	O
government	O
established	O
its	O
"	O
Social	O
Principles	O
of	O
Human-Centric	O
AI	B-Application
"	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
closely	O
linked	O
to	O
its	O
"	O
AI	B-Application
strategy	O
2019	O
:	O
AI	B-Application
for	O
Everyone	O
:	O
People	O
,	O
Industries	O
,	O
Regions	O
and	O
Governments	O
"	O
,	O
and	O
a	O
separate	O
set	O
of	O
AI	B-Application
Utilization	O
Guidelines	O
that	O
encourage	O
voluntary	O
adherence	O
and	O
emphasize	O
that	O
AI	B-Application
shall	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
"	O
expand	O
human	O
abilities	O
and	O
creativity	O
"	O
,	O
shall	O
not	O
"	O
infringe	O
on	O
a	O
person	O
's	O
individual	O
freedom	O
,	O
dignity	O
or	O
equality	O
"	O
,	O
and	O
adheres	O
to	O
the	O
"	O
principle	O
of	O
human	O
dignity	O
and	O
individual	O
autonomy	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
AI	B-Application
principles	O
can	O
also	O
be	O
incorporated	O
into	O
a	O
national	O
AI	B-Application
strategy	O
,	O
which	O
primarily	O
focuses	O
on	O
policy	O
instruments	O
advancing	O
AI	B-Application
,	O
such	O
as	O
investment	O
in	O
STEM	O
education	O
and	O
public-private	O
partnerships	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
India	O
's	O
AI	B-Application
strategy	O
,	O
"	O
National	O
Strategy	O
for	O
Artificial	B-Application
Intelligence	I-Application
"	O
published	O
in	O
June	O
2018	O
,	O
identifies	O
key	O
areas	O
of	O
high	O
national	O
priority	O
for	O
AI	B-Application
development	O
(	O
healthcare	O
,	O
agriculture	O
,	O
education	O
,	O
urban-/smart	O
-city	O
infrastructure	O
,	O
transportation	O
and	O
mobility	O
)	O
,	O
with	O
ethical	O
topics	O
such	O
as	O
privacy	O
and	O
fairness	O
integrated	O
as	O
a	O
forward-looking	O
section	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Non-binding	O
AI	B-Application
principles	O
suggested	O
by	O
actors	O
inside	O
or	O
outside	O
the	O
government	O
might	O
sometimes	O
be	O
further	O
concretized	O
into	O
specific	O
policy	O
or	O
regulation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2020	O
,	O
the	O
United	O
Kingdom	O
's	O
government	O
's	O
advisory	O
body	O
on	O
the	O
responsible	O
use	O
of	O
AI	B-Application
,	O
the	O
Centre	O
for	O
Data	O
Ethics	O
and	O
Innovation	O
,	O
proposed	O
specific	O
measures	O
for	O
government	O
,	O
regulators	O
and	O
industry	O
to	O
tackle	O
algorithmic	O
bias	O
in	O
the	O
sectors	O
of	O
financial	O
services	O
,	O
local	O
government	O
,	O
policing	O
and	O
recruitment	O
,	O
with	O
each	O
area	O
relevant	O
to	O
how	O
individuals	O
conduct	O
their	O
ways	O
of	O
life	O
and	O
access	O
socio-economic	O
opportunities	O
without	O
being	O
subjected	O
to	O
unfair	O
treatment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Cultural	O
and	O
geographical	O
representation	O
has	O
been	O
highlighted	O
as	O
a	O
challenge	O
in	O
ensuring	O
the	O
burgeoning	O
AI	B-Application
norms	O
sufficiently	O
consider	O
unique	O
opportunities	O
and	O
risks	O
faced	O
by	O
the	O
global	O
population	O
,	O
who	O
exercise	O
their	O
autonomy	O
and	O
freedom	O
in	O
vastly	O
different	O
political	O
regimes	O
with	O
varying	O
degrees	O
of	O
rule	O
of	O
law	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
2020	O
,	O
a	O
report	O
published	O
by	O
the	O
Council	O
of	O
Europe	O
reviewed	O
116	O
AI	B-Application
principles	O
documents	O
and	O
found	O
that	O
"	O
these	O
soft	O
law	O
documents	O
are	O
being	O
primarily	O
developed	O
in	O
Europe	O
,	O
North	O
America	O
and	O
Asia	O
"	O
,	O
while	O
"	O
the	O
global	O
south	O
is	O
currently	O
underrepresented	O
in	O
the	O
landscape	O
of	O
organisations	O
proposing	O
AI	B-Application
ethics	O
guidelines	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
