<s>
A	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
is	O
information	O
used	O
by	O
computer	B-General_Concept
systems	I-General_Concept
to	O
represent	O
an	O
external	O
agent	O
–	O
a	O
person	O
,	O
organization	O
,	O
application	O
,	O
or	O
device	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Digital	B-Application
identities	I-Application
allow	O
access	O
to	O
services	O
provided	O
with	O
computers	O
to	O
be	O
automated	O
and	O
make	O
it	O
possible	O
for	O
computers	O
to	O
mediate	O
relationships	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
use	O
of	O
digital	B-Application
identities	I-Application
is	O
so	O
widespread	O
that	O
many	O
discussions	O
refer	O
to	O
the	O
entire	O
collection	O
of	O
information	O
generated	O
by	O
a	O
person	O
's	O
online	O
activity	O
as	O
a	O
"	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
includes	O
usernames	O
,	O
passwords	O
,	O
search	B-Application
history	I-Application
,	O
birthdate	O
,	O
social	O
security	O
number	O
,	O
and	O
purchase	O
history	O
,	O
especially	O
where	O
that	O
information	O
is	O
publicly	O
available	O
and	O
not	O
anonymized	O
and	O
so	O
can	O
be	O
used	O
by	O
others	O
to	O
discover	O
that	O
person	O
's	O
civil	O
identity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
this	O
broader	O
sense	O
,	O
a	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
is	O
a	O
facet	O
of	O
a	O
person	O
's	O
social	O
identity	O
and	O
is	O
also	O
referred	O
to	O
as	O
online	B-Application
identity	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
individual	O
's	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
is	O
often	O
linked	O
to	O
their	O
civil	O
or	O
national	O
identity	O
and	O
many	O
countries	O
have	O
instituted	O
national	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
systems	I-Application
that	O
provide	O
digital	B-Application
identities	I-Application
to	O
their	O
citizenry	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
legal	O
and	O
social	O
effects	O
of	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
are	O
complex	O
and	O
challenging	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
critical	O
problem	O
in	O
cyberspace	B-General_Concept
is	O
knowing	O
with	O
whom	O
one	O
is	O
interacting	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Using	O
only	O
static	O
identifiers	O
such	O
as	O
password	O
and	O
email	O
,	O
there	O
is	O
no	O
way	O
to	O
precisely	O
determine	O
the	O
identity	O
of	O
a	O
person	O
in	O
cyberspace	B-General_Concept
because	O
this	O
information	O
can	O
be	O
stolen	O
or	O
used	O
by	O
many	O
individuals	O
acting	O
as	O
one	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
based	O
on	O
dynamic	O
entity	O
relationships	O
captured	O
from	O
behavioral	O
history	O
across	O
multiple	O
websites	O
and	O
mobile	O
apps	O
can	O
verify	O
and	O
authenticate	O
an	O
identity	O
with	O
up	O
to	O
95%	O
accuracy	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Data	O
used	O
for	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
is	O
generally	O
anonymized	O
using	O
a	O
one-way	B-Algorithm
hash	I-Algorithm
,	O
thereby	O
avoiding	O
privacy	O
concerns	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Because	O
it	O
is	O
based	O
on	O
behavioral	O
history	O
,	O
a	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
is	O
very	O
hard	O
to	O
fake	O
or	O
steal	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
may	O
also	O
be	O
referred	O
to	O
as	O
a	O
digital	O
subject	O
or	O
digital	O
entity	O
and	O
is	O
the	O
digital	O
representation	O
of	O
a	O
set	O
of	O
claims	O
made	O
by	O
one	O
party	O
about	O
itself	O
or	O
another	O
person	O
,	O
group	O
,	O
thing	O
or	O
concept	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
attributes	B-General_Concept
of	O
a	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
are	O
acquired	O
and	O
contain	O
information	O
about	O
a	O
subject	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
medical	O
history	O
,	O
purchasing	O
behavior	O
,	O
bank	O
balance	O
,	O
age	O
and	O
so	O
on	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Although	O
attributes	B-General_Concept
of	O
a	O
subject	O
can	O
change	O
easily	O
,	O
traits	O
change	O
slowly	O
,	O
if	O
at	O
all	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
also	O
has	O
entity	O
relationships	O
derived	O
from	O
the	O
devices	O
,	O
environment	O
and	O
locations	O
from	O
which	O
an	O
individual	O
is	O
active	O
on	O
the	O
Internet	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Digital	B-Application
identities	I-Application
can	O
be	O
issued	O
through	O
digital	O
certificates	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
certificates	O
contain	O
data	O
associated	O
with	O
a	O
user	O
and	O
are	O
issued	O
with	O
legal	O
guarantees	O
by	O
recognized	O
certification	B-Architecture
authorities	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
this	O
way	O
,	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
is	O
better	O
understood	O
as	O
a	O
particular	O
viewpoint	O
within	O
a	O
mutually-agreed	O
relationship	O
than	O
as	O
an	O
objective	O
property	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Physical	O
authentication	O
techniques	O
include	O
iris	O
scanning	O
,	O
fingerprinting	O
,	O
and	O
voice	B-Application
recognition	I-Application
;	O
those	O
techniques	O
are	O
called	O
biometrics	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
use	O
of	O
both	O
static	O
identifiers	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
username	O
and	O
password	O
)	O
and	O
personal	O
unique	O
attributes	B-General_Concept
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
biometrics	O
)	O
is	O
called	O
multi-factor	O
authentication	O
and	O
is	O
more	O
secure	O
than	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
one	O
component	O
alone	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
authorization	O
on	O
a	O
credit	O
card	O
gives	O
access	O
to	O
the	O
resources	O
owned	O
by	O
Amazon	B-Application
,	O
e.g.	O
,	O
Amazon	B-Application
sends	O
one	O
a	O
product	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
requires	O
digital	O
identifiers	O
—	O
strings	O
or	O
tokens	O
that	O
are	O
unique	O
within	O
a	O
given	O
scope	O
(	O
globally	O
or	O
locally	O
within	O
a	O
specific	O
domain	O
,	O
community	O
,	O
directory	O
,	O
application	O
,	O
etc	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Resolvable	O
identifiers	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
a	O
domain	O
name	O
or	O
email	O
address	O
,	O
may	O
be	O
easily	O
dereferenced	O
into	O
the	O
entity	O
they	O
represent	O
,	O
or	O
some	O
current	O
state	O
data	O
providing	O
relevant	O
attributes	B-General_Concept
of	O
that	O
entity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Uniform	B-Protocol
Resource	I-Protocol
Identifier	I-Protocol
(	O
URI	B-Protocol
)	O
and	O
the	O
internationalized	O
version	O
Internationalized	B-Protocol
Resource	I-Protocol
Identifier	I-Protocol
(	O
IRI	O
)	O
are	O
the	O
standard	O
for	O
identifiers	O
for	O
websites	O
on	O
the	O
World	O
Wide	O
Web	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
OpenID	O
and	O
Light-weight	B-General_Concept
Identity	I-General_Concept
are	O
two	O
web	O
authentication	O
protocols	O
that	O
use	O
standard	O
HTTP	B-Protocol
URIs	B-Protocol
(	O
often	O
called	O
URLs	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
Uniform	B-Protocol
Resource	I-Protocol
Name	I-Protocol
is	O
a	O
persistent	O
,	O
location-independent	O
identifier	O
assigned	O
within	O
the	O
defined	O
namespace	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
protocols	O
enable	O
a	O
distributed	B-Architecture
computer	I-Architecture
system	I-Architecture
to	O
store	O
identifiers	O
,	O
known	O
as	O
handles	O
,	O
of	O
arbitrary	O
resources	O
and	O
resolve	O
those	O
handles	O
into	O
the	O
information	O
necessary	O
to	O
locate	O
,	O
access	O
,	O
contact	O
,	O
authenticate	O
,	O
or	O
otherwise	O
make	O
use	O
of	O
the	O
resources	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
new	O
OASIS	O
standard	O
for	O
abstract	O
,	O
structured	O
identifiers	O
,	O
XRI	O
(	O
Extensible	O
Resource	O
Identifiers	O
)	O
,	O
adds	O
new	O
features	O
to	O
URIs	B-Protocol
and	O
IRIs	O
that	O
are	O
especially	O
useful	O
for	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
systems	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Risk-based	O
authentication	O
is	O
an	O
application	O
of	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
whereby	O
multiple	O
entity	O
relationship	O
from	O
the	O
device	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
operating	O
system	O
)	O
,	O
environment	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
DNS	O
Server	O
)	O
and	O
data	O
entered	O
by	O
a	O
user	O
for	O
any	O
given	O
transaction	O
is	O
evaluated	O
for	O
correlation	O
with	O
events	O
from	O
known	O
behaviors	O
for	O
the	O
same	O
identity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
proponents	O
of	O
treating	O
self-determination	O
and	O
freedom	O
of	O
expression	O
of	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
as	O
a	O
new	O
human	O
right	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
have	O
speculated	O
that	O
digital	B-Application
identities	I-Application
could	O
become	O
a	O
new	O
form	O
of	O
legal	O
entity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
attributes	B-General_Concept
exist	O
within	O
the	O
context	O
of	O
ontologies	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
development	O
of	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
network	O
solutions	O
that	O
can	O
interoperate	O
taxonomically	O
diverse	O
representations	O
of	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
is	O
a	O
contemporary	O
challenge	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Free-tagging	B-General_Concept
has	O
emerged	O
recently	O
as	O
an	O
effective	O
way	O
of	O
circumventing	O
this	O
challenge	O
(	O
to	O
date	O
,	O
primarily	O
with	O
application	O
to	O
the	O
identity	O
of	O
digital	O
entities	O
such	O
as	O
bookmarks	O
and	O
photos	O
)	O
by	O
effectively	O
flattening	O
identity	O
attributes	B-General_Concept
into	O
a	O
single	O
,	O
unstructured	O
layer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
And	O
if	O
identity	O
relationships	O
are	O
to	O
reach	O
beyond	O
the	O
context	O
of	O
a	O
single	O
,	O
federated	O
ontology	O
of	O
identity	O
(	O
see	O
Taxonomies	O
of	O
identity	O
above	O
)	O
,	O
identity	O
attributes	B-General_Concept
must	O
somehow	O
be	O
matched	O
across	O
diverse	O
ontologies	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
an	O
illustration	O
of	O
the	O
potential	O
application	O
of	O
selective	O
disclosure	O
,	O
let	O
us	O
suppose	O
a	O
certain	O
Diana	O
wished	O
to	O
book	O
a	O
hire	O
car	O
without	O
disclosing	O
irrelevant	O
personal	O
information	O
(	O
using	O
a	O
notional	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
network	O
that	O
supports	O
compound	O
trust	O
relationships	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
classic	O
form	O
of	O
networked	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
based	O
on	O
international	O
standards	O
is	O
the	O
"	O
White	O
Pages	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Various	O
attributes	B-General_Concept
such	O
as	O
X.509v3	O
digital	O
certificates	O
for	O
secure	O
cryptographic	O
communications	O
are	O
captured	O
under	O
a	O
schema	O
,	O
and	O
published	O
in	O
an	O
LDAP	B-Protocol
or	O
X.500	B-Protocol
directory	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
Changes	O
to	O
the	O
LDAP	B-Protocol
standard	O
are	O
managed	O
by	O
working	O
groups	O
in	O
the	O
IETF	O
,	O
and	O
changes	O
in	O
X.500	B-Protocol
are	O
managed	O
by	O
the	O
ISO	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
ITU	O
did	O
significant	O
analysis	O
of	O
gaps	O
in	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
interoperability	O
via	O
the	O
FGidm	O
( ƒfocus	O
group	O
on	O
identity	O
management	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Implementations	O
of	O
X.500[2005]	O
and	O
LDAPv3	O
have	O
occurred	O
worldwide	O
but	O
are	O
primarily	O
located	O
in	O
major	O
data	O
centers	O
with	O
administrative	O
policy	O
boundaries	O
regarding	O
sharing	O
of	O
personal	O
information	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
combined	O
X.500	B-Protocol
 [ 2005 ] 	O
and	O
LDAPv3	O
directories	O
can	O
hold	O
millions	O
of	O
unique	O
objects	O
for	O
rapid	O
access	O
,	O
it	O
is	O
expected	O
to	O
play	O
a	O
continued	O
role	O
for	O
large	O
scale	O
secure	O
identity	O
access	O
services	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
LDAPv3	O
can	O
act	O
as	O
a	O
lightweight	O
standalone	O
server	O
,	O
or	O
in	O
the	O
original	O
design	O
as	O
a	O
TCP-IP	O
based	O
Lightweight	B-Protocol
Directory	I-Protocol
Access	I-Protocol
Protocol	I-Protocol
compatible	O
with	O
making	O
queries	O
to	O
a	O
X.500	B-Protocol
mesh	O
of	O
servers	O
which	O
can	O
run	O
the	O
native	O
OSI	O
protocol	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
will	O
be	O
done	O
by	O
scaling	O
individual	O
servers	O
into	O
larger	O
groupings	O
that	O
represent	O
defined	O
"	O
administrative	O
domains	O
"	O
,	O
(	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
country	O
level	O
digital	O
object	O
)	O
which	O
can	O
add	O
value	O
not	O
present	O
in	O
the	O
original	O
"	O
White	O
Pages	O
"	O
that	O
was	O
used	O
to	O
look	O
up	O
phone	O
numbers	O
and	O
email	O
addresses	O
,	O
largely	O
now	O
available	O
through	O
non-authoritative	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
ability	O
to	O
leverage	O
and	O
extend	O
a	O
networked	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
is	O
made	O
more	O
practicable	O
by	O
the	O
expression	O
of	O
the	O
level	O
of	O
trust	O
associated	O
with	O
the	O
given	O
identity	O
through	O
a	O
common	O
Identity	O
Assurance	O
Framework	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Several	O
writers	O
have	O
pointed	O
out	O
the	O
tension	O
between	O
services	O
that	O
use	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
on	O
the	O
one	O
hand	O
and	O
user	O
privacy	O
on	O
the	O
other	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Services	O
that	O
gather	O
and	O
store	O
data	O
linked	O
to	O
a	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
which	O
in	O
turn	O
can	O
be	O
linked	O
to	O
a	O
user	O
's	O
real	O
identity	O
can	O
learn	O
a	O
great	O
deal	O
about	O
individuals	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
systems	O
provide	O
privacy-related	O
mitigations	O
when	O
analyzing	O
data	O
linked	O
to	O
digital	B-Application
identities	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
common	O
mitigation	O
is	O
data	O
anonymization	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
hashing	O
user	O
identifiers	O
with	O
a	O
cryptographic	B-Algorithm
hash	I-Algorithm
function	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Although	O
a	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
allows	O
consumers	O
to	O
transact	O
from	O
anywhere	O
and	O
more	O
easily	O
manage	O
various	O
ID	O
cards	O
,	O
it	O
also	O
poses	O
a	O
potential	O
single	O
point	O
of	O
compromise	O
that	O
malicious	O
hackers	O
can	O
use	O
to	O
steal	O
all	O
of	O
that	O
personal	O
information	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
term	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
is	O
used	O
in	O
the	O
academic	O
field	O
of	O
digital	O
rhetoric	O
to	O
denote	O
identity	O
as	O
a	O
"	O
rhetorical	O
construction.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
addition	O
to	O
that	O
,	O
physical	O
and	O
digital	B-Application
identities	I-Application
cannot	O
be	O
separated	O
and	O
visual	O
affordances	O
shape	O
the	O
representation	O
of	O
physical	O
identity	O
in	O
online	O
spaces	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
Bay	O
argues	O
,	O
“	O
what	O
we	O
do	O
online	O
now	O
requires	O
there	O
to	O
be	O
more	O
continuity	O
—	O
or	O
at	O
least	O
fluidity	O
—	O
between	O
our	O
online	O
and	O
off-line	O
selves.	O
”	O
In	O
positioning	O
of	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
in	O
rhetoric	O
,	O
the	O
scholars	O
pay	O
attention	O
to	O
how	O
issues	O
of	O
race	O
,	O
gender	O
,	O
agency	O
,	O
and	O
power	O
are	O
manifested	O
in	O
digital	O
spaces	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
radical	O
theorists	O
"	O
posited	O
that	O
cyberspace	B-General_Concept
would	O
liberate	O
people	O
from	O
their	O
bodies	O
,	O
blur	O
the	O
lines	O
between	O
human	O
and	O
technology.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
Even	O
more	O
,	O
the	O
construction	O
of	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
is	O
also	O
tied	O
to	O
the	O
network	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
can	O
be	O
seen	O
from	O
the	O
practices	O
of	O
reputation	O
management	O
companies	O
which	O
work	O
on	O
creating	O
positive	O
identity	O
,	O
so	O
that	O
personal	O
or	O
company	O
's	O
accounts	O
show	O
up	O
higher	O
in	O
various	O
search	B-Application
engines	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Clare	O
Sullivan	O
presents	O
the	O
grounds	O
for	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
as	O
an	O
emerging	O
legal	O
concept	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
consequences	O
of	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
abuse	O
and	O
fraud	O
are	O
potentially	O
serious	O
,	O
since	O
in	O
possible	O
implications	O
the	O
person	O
is	O
held	O
legally	O
responsible	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Such	O
tailoring	O
however	O
,	O
depends	O
on	O
the	O
ability	O
to	O
connect	O
attributes	B-General_Concept
and	O
preferences	O
to	O
the	O
identity	O
of	O
the	O
visitor	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
many	O
companies	O
that	O
secure	O
digital	B-Application
identities	I-Application
after	O
death	O
or	O
legally	O
pass	O
those	O
on	O
to	O
the	O
deceased	O
people	O
's	O
families	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Although	O
many	O
facets	O
of	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
are	O
universal	O
owing	O
in	O
part	O
to	O
the	O
ubiquity	O
of	O
the	O
Internet	O
,	O
some	O
regional	O
variations	O
exist	O
due	O
to	O
specific	O
laws	O
,	O
practices	O
and	O
government	O
services	O
that	O
are	O
in	O
place	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
can	O
use	O
services	O
that	O
validate	O
driving	O
licences	O
,	O
passports	B-Protocol
and	O
other	O
physical	O
documents	O
online	O
to	O
help	O
improve	O
the	O
quality	O
of	O
a	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Also	O
,	O
strict	O
policies	O
against	O
money	O
laundering	O
mean	O
that	O
some	O
services	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
money	O
transfers	O
need	O
a	O
stricter	O
level	O
of	O
validation	O
of	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
in	O
the	O
national	O
sense	O
can	O
mean	O
a	O
combination	O
of	O
single	O
sign	O
on	O
,	O
and/or	O
validation	O
of	O
assertions	O
by	O
trusted	O
authorities	O
(	O
generally	O
the	O
government	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Countries	O
or	O
regions	O
with	O
official	O
or	O
unofficial	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
systems	I-Application
include	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
4258	O
,	O
also	O
named	O
Improving	O
Digital	B-Application
Identity	I-Application
Act	O
of	O
2021	O
,	O
in	O
an	O
effort	O
to	O
establish	O
a	O
governmentwide	O
approach	O
to	O
improving	O
digital	O
ID	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
with	O
S	O
.	O
4528	O
,	O
Improving	O
Digital	B-Application
Identity	I-Application
Act	O
of	O
2022	O
,	O
from	O
the	O
Senate	O
Committee	O
on	O
Homeland	O
Security	O
and	O
Governmental	O
Affairs	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
new	O
order	O
is	O
trying	O
to	O
establish	O
a	O
task	O
force	O
to	O
coordinate	O
federal	O
,	O
state	O
,	O
and	O
private-sector	O
efforts	O
to	O
develop	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
credentials	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
driver	O
’s	O
licenses	O
,	O
passports	B-Protocol
,	O
and	O
birth	O
certificates	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
framework	O
has	O
been	O
used	O
by	O
the	O
Government	O
of	O
Canada	O
to	O
assess	O
the	O
Province	O
of	O
Alberta	O
and	O
the	O
Province	O
of	O
British	O
Columbia	O
and	O
accepted	O
their	O
program	O
as	O
trusted	O
digital	B-Application
identities	I-Application
for	O
use	O
by	O
federal	O
government	O
services	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Countries	O
or	O
regions	O
with	O
proposed	O
digital	B-Application
identity	I-Application
systems	I-Application
include	O
:	O
</s>
