<s>
Data	B-Application
sharing	I-Application
is	O
the	O
practice	O
of	O
making	O
data	O
used	O
for	O
scholarly	O
research	O
available	O
to	O
other	O
investigators	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
funding	O
agencies	O
,	O
institutions	O
,	O
and	O
publication	O
venues	O
have	O
policies	O
regarding	O
data	B-Application
sharing	I-Application
because	O
transparency	O
and	O
openness	O
are	O
considered	O
by	O
many	O
to	O
be	O
part	O
of	O
the	O
scientific	O
method	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
great	O
deal	O
of	O
scientific	O
research	O
is	O
not	O
subject	O
to	O
data	B-Application
sharing	I-Application
requirements	O
,	O
and	O
many	O
of	O
these	O
policies	O
have	O
liberal	O
exceptions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
absence	O
of	O
any	O
binding	O
requirement	O
,	O
data	B-Application
sharing	I-Application
is	O
at	O
the	O
discretion	O
of	O
the	O
scientists	O
themselves	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
addition	O
,	O
in	O
certain	O
situations	O
governments	O
and	O
institutions	O
prohibit	O
or	O
severely	O
limit	O
data	B-Application
sharing	I-Application
to	O
protect	O
proprietary	O
interests	O
,	O
national	O
security	O
,	O
and	O
subject/patient/victim	O
confidentiality	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Data	B-Application
sharing	I-Application
may	O
also	O
be	O
restricted	O
to	O
protect	O
institutions	O
and	O
scientists	O
from	O
use	O
of	O
data	O
for	O
political	O
purposes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
order	O
to	O
encourage	O
data	B-Application
sharing	I-Application
and	O
prevent	O
the	O
loss	O
or	O
corruption	O
of	O
data	O
,	O
a	O
number	O
of	O
funding	O
agencies	O
and	O
journals	O
established	O
policies	O
on	O
data	B-General_Concept
archiving	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Access	O
to	O
publicly	O
archived	O
data	O
is	O
a	O
recent	O
development	O
in	O
the	O
history	O
of	O
science	O
made	O
possible	O
by	O
technological	O
advances	O
in	O
communications	O
and	O
information	B-General_Concept
technology	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Models	O
recognized	O
for	O
improving	O
the	O
timely	O
sharing	O
of	O
data	O
for	O
more	O
effective	O
response	O
to	O
emergent	O
infectious	O
disease	O
threats	O
include	O
the	O
data	B-Application
sharing	I-Application
mechanism	O
introduced	O
by	O
the	O
GISAID	O
Initiative	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Despite	O
policies	O
on	O
data	B-Application
sharing	I-Application
and	O
archiving	O
,	O
data	B-Application
withholding	I-Application
still	O
happens	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Failure	O
to	O
archive	O
data	O
alone	O
is	O
not	O
data	B-Application
withholding	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Data	B-Application
sharing	I-Application
may	O
also	O
indicate	O
the	O
sharing	O
of	O
personal	O
information	O
on	O
a	O
social	O
media	O
platform	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
United	O
States	O
Department	O
of	O
Health	O
and	O
Human	O
Services	O
established	O
an	O
office	O
to	O
oversee	O
investigations	O
of	O
allegations	O
of	O
misconduct	O
,	O
including	O
data	B-Application
withholding	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
research	O
organizations	O
feel	O
particularly	O
strongly	O
about	O
data	B-Application
sharing	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Data	O
Observation	O
Network	O
for	O
Earth	O
(	O
DataONE	O
)	O
and	O
Data	O
Conservancy	O
are	O
projects	O
supported	O
by	O
the	O
National	O
Science	O
Foundation	O
to	O
encourage	O
and	O
facilitate	O
data	B-Application
sharing	I-Application
among	O
research	O
scientists	O
and	O
better	O
support	O
meta-analysis	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
environmental	O
sciences	O
,	O
the	O
research	O
community	O
is	O
recognizing	O
that	O
major	O
scientific	O
advances	O
involving	O
integration	O
of	O
knowledge	O
in	O
and	O
across	O
fields	O
will	O
require	O
that	O
researchers	O
overcome	O
not	O
only	O
the	O
technological	O
barriers	O
to	O
data	B-Application
sharing	I-Application
but	O
also	O
the	O
historically	O
entrenched	O
institutional	O
and	O
sociological	O
barriers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
public	O
domain	O
archives	O
have	O
been	O
embraced	O
for	O
depositing	O
data	O
,	O
mainly	O
post	O
formal	O
publication	O
,	O
they	O
have	O
failed	O
to	O
encourage	O
rapid	O
data	B-Application
sharing	I-Application
during	O
health	O
emergencies	O
,	O
among	O
them	O
the	O
Ebola	O
and	O
Zika	O
,	O
outbreaks	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
study	O
of	O
scientists	O
in	O
training	O
indicated	O
many	O
had	O
already	O
experienced	O
data	B-Application
withholding	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Requirements	O
for	O
data	B-Application
sharing	I-Application
are	O
more	O
commonly	O
imposed	O
by	O
institutions	O
,	O
funding	O
agencies	O
,	O
and	O
publication	O
venues	O
in	O
the	O
medical	O
and	O
biological	O
sciences	O
than	O
in	O
the	O
physical	O
sciences	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Requirements	O
vary	O
widely	O
regarding	O
whether	O
data	O
must	O
be	O
shared	O
at	O
all	O
,	O
with	O
whom	O
the	O
data	O
must	O
be	O
shared	O
,	O
and	O
who	O
must	O
bear	O
the	O
expense	O
of	O
data	B-Application
sharing	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Data	B-Application
sharing	I-Application
poses	O
specific	O
challenges	O
in	O
participatory	O
monitoring	O
initiatives	O
,	O
for	O
example	O
where	O
forest	O
communities	O
collect	O
data	O
on	O
local	O
social	O
and	O
environmental	O
conditions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
this	O
case	O
,	O
a	O
rights-based	O
approach	O
to	O
the	O
development	O
of	O
data-sharing	B-Application
protocols	O
can	O
be	O
based	O
on	O
principles	O
of	O
free	O
,	O
prior	O
and	O
informed	O
consent	O
,	O
and	O
prioritise	O
the	O
protection	O
of	O
the	O
rights	O
of	O
those	O
who	O
generated	O
the	O
data	O
,	O
and/or	O
those	O
potentially	O
affected	O
by	O
data-sharing	B-Application
.	O
</s>
