<s>
Data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
is	O
a	O
process	O
of	O
inspecting	O
,	O
cleansing	O
,	O
transforming	B-General_Concept
,	O
and	O
modeling	B-Application
data	O
with	O
the	O
goal	O
of	O
discovering	O
useful	O
information	O
,	O
informing	O
conclusions	O
,	O
and	O
supporting	O
decision-making	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
has	O
multiple	O
facets	O
and	O
approaches	O
,	O
encompassing	O
diverse	O
techniques	O
under	O
a	O
variety	O
of	O
names	O
,	O
and	O
is	O
used	O
in	O
different	O
business	O
,	O
science	O
,	O
and	O
social	O
science	O
domains	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
today	O
's	O
business	O
world	O
,	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
plays	O
a	O
role	O
in	O
making	O
decisions	O
more	O
scientific	O
and	O
helping	O
businesses	O
operate	O
more	O
effectively	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Data	B-Application
mining	I-Application
is	O
a	O
particular	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
technique	O
that	O
focuses	O
on	O
statistical	O
modeling	B-Application
and	O
knowledge	O
discovery	O
for	O
predictive	O
rather	O
than	O
purely	O
descriptive	O
purposes	O
,	O
while	O
business	B-General_Concept
intelligence	I-General_Concept
covers	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
that	O
relies	O
heavily	O
on	O
aggregation	O
,	O
focusing	O
mainly	O
on	O
business	B-General_Concept
information	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
statistical	O
applications	O
,	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
can	O
be	O
divided	O
into	O
descriptive	B-General_Concept
statistics	I-General_Concept
,	O
exploratory	B-General_Concept
data	I-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
(	O
EDA	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
confirmatory	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
(	O
CDA	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Predictive	B-General_Concept
analytics	I-General_Concept
focuses	O
on	O
the	O
application	O
of	O
statistical	O
models	O
for	O
predictive	O
forecasting	O
or	O
classification	O
,	O
while	O
text	B-Algorithm
analytics	I-Algorithm
applies	O
statistical	O
,	O
linguistic	O
,	O
and	O
structural	O
techniques	O
to	O
extract	O
and	O
classify	O
information	O
from	O
textual	O
sources	O
,	O
a	O
species	O
of	O
unstructured	B-Application
data	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
All	O
of	O
the	O
above	O
are	O
varieties	O
of	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Data	B-General_Concept
integration	I-General_Concept
is	O
a	O
precursor	O
to	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
,	O
and	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
is	O
closely	O
linked	O
to	O
data	B-Application
visualization	I-Application
and	O
data	O
dissemination	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
,	O
is	O
a	O
process	O
for	O
obtaining	O
raw	O
data	O
,	O
and	O
subsequently	O
converting	O
it	O
into	O
information	O
useful	O
for	O
decision-making	O
by	O
users	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Statistician	O
John	O
Tukey	O
,	O
defined	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
in	O
1961	O
,	O
as	O
:	O
"	O
Procedures	O
for	O
analyzing	O
data	O
,	O
techniques	O
for	O
interpreting	O
the	O
results	O
of	O
such	O
procedures	O
,	O
ways	O
of	O
planning	O
the	O
gathering	O
of	O
data	O
to	O
make	O
its	O
analysis	O
easier	O
,	O
more	O
precise	O
or	O
more	O
accurate	O
,	O
and	O
all	O
the	O
machinery	O
and	O
results	O
of	O
(	O
mathematical	O
)	O
statistics	O
which	O
apply	O
to	O
analyzing	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
phases	O
are	O
iterative	B-Algorithm
,	O
in	O
that	O
feedback	O
from	O
later	O
phases	O
may	O
result	O
in	O
additional	O
work	O
in	O
earlier	O
phases	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
CRISP	B-Algorithm
framework	I-Algorithm
,	O
used	O
in	O
data	B-Application
mining	I-Application
,	O
has	O
similar	O
steps	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
instance	O
,	O
these	O
may	O
involve	O
placing	O
data	O
into	O
rows	O
and	O
columns	O
in	O
a	O
table	O
format	O
(	O
known	O
as	O
structured	B-Application
data	I-Application
)	O
for	O
further	O
analysis	O
,	O
often	O
through	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
spreadsheet	O
or	O
statistical	O
software	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Analysts	O
may	O
apply	O
a	O
variety	O
of	O
techniques	O
,	O
referred	O
to	O
as	O
exploratory	B-General_Concept
data	I-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
,	O
to	O
begin	O
understanding	O
the	O
messages	O
contained	O
within	O
the	O
obtained	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
process	O
of	O
data	O
exploration	O
may	O
result	O
in	O
additional	O
data	O
cleaning	O
or	O
additional	O
requests	O
for	O
data	O
;	O
thus	O
,	O
the	O
initialization	O
of	O
the	O
iterative	B-Algorithm
phases	O
mentioned	O
in	O
the	O
lead	O
paragraph	O
of	O
this	O
section	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Descriptive	B-General_Concept
statistics	I-General_Concept
,	O
such	O
as	O
,	O
the	O
average	O
or	O
median	O
,	O
can	O
be	O
generated	O
to	O
aid	O
in	O
understanding	O
the	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Data	B-Application
visualization	I-Application
is	O
also	O
a	O
technique	O
used	O
,	O
in	O
which	O
the	O
analyst	O
is	O
able	O
to	O
examine	O
the	O
data	O
in	O
a	O
graphical	O
format	O
in	O
order	O
to	O
obtain	O
additional	O
insights	O
,	O
regarding	O
the	O
messages	O
within	O
the	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Mathematical	O
formulas	O
or	O
models	O
(	O
also	O
known	O
as	O
algorithms	O
)	O
,	O
may	O
be	O
applied	O
to	O
the	O
data	O
in	O
order	O
to	O
identify	O
relationships	O
among	O
the	O
variables	O
;	O
for	O
example	O
,	O
using	O
correlation	O
or	O
causation	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
general	O
terms	O
,	O
models	O
may	O
be	O
developed	O
to	O
evaluate	O
a	O
specific	O
variable	O
based	O
on	O
other	O
variable(s )	O
contained	O
within	O
the	O
dataset	O
,	O
with	O
some	O
residual	B-Error_Name
error	I-Error_Name
depending	O
on	O
the	O
implemented	O
model	O
's	O
accuracy	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
Data	O
=	O
Model	O
+	O
Error	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
such	O
,	O
much	O
of	O
the	O
analytical	O
cycle	O
is	O
iterative	B-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
determining	O
how	O
to	O
communicate	O
the	O
results	O
,	O
the	O
analyst	O
may	O
consider	O
implementing	O
a	O
variety	O
of	O
data	B-Application
visualization	I-Application
techniques	O
to	O
help	O
communicate	O
the	O
message	O
more	O
clearly	O
and	O
efficiently	O
to	O
the	O
audience	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Data	B-Application
visualization	I-Application
uses	O
information	B-Device
displays	I-Device
(	O
graphics	O
such	O
as	O
,	O
tables	B-Application
and	O
charts	O
)	O
to	O
help	O
communicate	O
key	O
messages	O
contained	O
in	O
the	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Tables	B-Application
are	O
a	O
valuable	O
tool	O
by	O
enabling	O
the	O
ability	O
of	O
a	O
user	O
to	O
query	O
and	O
focus	O
on	O
specific	O
numbers	O
;	O
while	O
charts	O
(	O
e.g.	O
,	O
bar	B-Application
charts	I-Application
or	O
line	B-Application
charts	I-Application
)	O
,	O
may	O
help	O
explain	O
the	O
quantitative	O
messages	O
contained	O
in	O
the	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Customers	O
specifying	O
requirements	O
and	O
analysts	O
performing	O
the	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
may	O
consider	O
these	O
messages	O
during	O
the	O
course	O
of	O
the	O
process	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
line	B-Application
chart	I-Application
may	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
demonstrate	O
the	O
trend	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
bar	B-Application
chart	I-Application
may	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
show	O
the	O
comparison	O
across	O
the	O
salespersons	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
pie	B-Application
chart	I-Application
or	O
bar	B-Application
chart	I-Application
can	O
show	O
the	O
comparison	O
of	O
ratios	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
market	O
share	O
represented	O
by	O
competitors	O
in	O
a	O
market	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
bar	B-Application
chart	I-Application
can	O
show	O
the	O
comparison	O
of	O
the	O
actual	O
versus	O
the	O
reference	O
amount	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
histogram	B-Algorithm
,	O
a	O
type	O
of	O
bar	B-Application
chart	I-Application
,	O
may	O
be	O
used	O
for	O
this	O
analysis	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
scatter	B-Application
plot	I-Application
is	O
typically	O
used	O
for	O
this	O
message	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
bar	B-Application
chart	I-Application
may	O
be	O
used	O
for	O
this	O
comparison	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
cartogram	B-Application
is	O
a	O
typical	O
graphic	O
used	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
the	O
variables	O
under	O
examination	O
,	O
analysts	O
typically	O
obtain	O
descriptive	B-General_Concept
statistics	I-General_Concept
for	O
them	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
mean	O
(	O
average	O
)	O
,	O
median	O
,	O
and	O
standard	B-General_Concept
deviation	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
11	O
Contextualization	B-General_Concept
Given	O
a	O
set	O
of	O
data	O
cases	O
,	O
find	O
contextual	O
relevancy	O
of	O
the	O
data	O
to	O
the	O
users	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Barriers	O
to	O
effective	O
analysis	O
may	O
exist	O
among	O
the	O
analysts	O
performing	O
the	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
or	O
among	O
the	O
audience	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Distinguishing	O
fact	O
from	O
opinion	O
,	O
cognitive	O
biases	O
,	O
and	O
innumeracy	O
are	O
all	O
challenges	O
to	O
sound	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Analysts	O
may	O
also	O
analyze	B-General_Concept
data	I-General_Concept
under	O
different	O
assumptions	O
or	O
scenario	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
data	B-General_Concept
analytics	I-General_Concept
approach	O
can	O
be	O
used	O
in	O
order	O
to	O
predict	O
energy	O
consumption	O
in	O
buildings	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
different	O
steps	O
of	O
the	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
process	O
are	O
carried	O
out	O
in	O
order	O
to	O
realise	O
smart	O
buildings	O
,	O
where	O
the	O
building	O
management	O
and	O
control	O
operations	O
including	O
heating	O
,	O
ventilation	O
,	O
air	O
conditioning	O
,	O
lighting	O
and	O
security	O
are	O
realised	O
automatically	O
by	O
miming	O
the	O
needs	O
of	O
the	O
building	O
users	O
and	O
optimising	O
resources	O
like	O
energy	O
and	O
time	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
a	O
subset	O
of	O
business	B-General_Concept
intelligence	I-General_Concept
,	O
which	O
is	O
a	O
set	O
of	O
technologies	O
and	O
processes	O
that	O
uses	O
data	O
to	O
understand	O
and	O
analyze	O
business	O
performance	O
to	O
drive	O
decision-making	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
education	O
,	O
most	O
educators	O
have	O
access	O
to	O
a	O
data	B-Application
system	I-Application
for	O
the	O
purpose	O
of	O
analyzing	O
student	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
data	B-Application
systems	I-Application
present	O
data	O
to	O
educators	O
in	O
an	O
over-the-counter	O
data	O
format	O
(	O
embedding	O
labels	O
,	O
supplemental	O
documentation	O
,	O
and	O
a	O
help	O
system	O
and	O
making	O
key	O
package/display	O
and	O
content	O
decisions	O
)	O
to	O
improve	O
the	O
accuracy	O
of	O
educators’	O
data	O
analyses	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
most	O
important	O
distinction	O
between	O
the	O
initial	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
phase	O
and	O
the	O
main	O
analysis	O
phase	O
,	O
is	O
that	O
during	O
initial	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
one	O
refrains	O
from	O
any	O
analysis	O
that	O
is	O
aimed	O
at	O
answering	O
the	O
original	O
research	O
question	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
initial	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
phase	O
is	O
guided	O
by	O
the	O
following	O
four	O
questions	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
Data	O
quality	O
can	O
be	O
assessed	O
in	O
several	O
ways	O
,	O
using	O
different	O
types	O
of	O
analysis	O
:	O
frequency	O
counts	O
,	O
descriptive	B-General_Concept
statistics	I-General_Concept
(	O
mean	O
,	O
standard	B-General_Concept
deviation	I-General_Concept
,	O
median	O
)	O
,	O
normality	O
(	O
skewness	O
,	O
kurtosis	O
,	O
frequency	O
histograms	B-Algorithm
)	O
,	O
normal	O
imputation	B-General_Concept
is	O
needed	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
choice	O
of	O
analyses	O
to	O
assess	O
the	O
data	O
quality	O
during	O
the	O
initial	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
phase	O
depends	O
on	O
the	O
analyses	O
that	O
will	O
be	O
conducted	O
in	O
the	O
main	O
analysis	O
phase	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
quality	O
of	O
the	O
measurement	O
instruments	O
should	O
only	O
be	O
checked	O
during	O
the	O
initial	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
phase	O
when	O
this	O
is	O
not	O
the	O
focus	O
or	O
research	O
question	O
of	O
the	O
study	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
During	O
the	O
final	O
stage	O
,	O
the	O
findings	O
of	O
the	O
initial	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
are	O
documented	O
,	O
and	O
necessary	O
,	O
preferable	O
,	O
and	O
possible	O
corrective	O
actions	O
are	O
taken.Also	O
,	O
the	O
original	O
plan	O
for	O
the	O
main	O
data	O
analyses	O
can	O
and	O
should	O
be	O
specified	O
in	O
more	O
detail	O
or	O
rewritten	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
case	O
of	O
non-normals	O
:	O
should	O
one	O
transform	B-General_Concept
variables	O
;	O
make	O
variables	O
categorical	O
(	O
ordinal/dichotomous	O
)	O
;	O
adapt	O
the	O
analysis	O
method	O
?	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
case	O
of	O
missing	O
data	O
:	O
should	O
one	O
neglect	O
or	O
impute	O
the	O
missing	O
data	O
;	O
which	O
imputation	B-General_Concept
technique	O
should	O
be	O
used	O
?	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
case	O
of	O
(	O
too	O
)	O
small	O
subgroups	O
:	O
should	O
one	O
drop	O
the	O
hypothesis	O
about	O
inter-group	O
differences	O
,	O
or	O
use	O
small	O
sample	O
techniques	O
,	O
like	O
exact	O
tests	O
or	O
bootstrapping	B-Application
?	O
</s>
<s>
Several	O
analyses	O
can	O
be	O
used	O
during	O
the	O
initial	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
phase	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
Nonlinear	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
is	O
closely	O
related	O
to	O
nonlinear	O
system	O
identification	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
an	O
exploratory	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
no	O
clear	O
hypothesis	O
is	O
stated	O
before	O
analysing	O
the	O
data	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
data	O
is	O
searched	O
for	O
models	O
that	O
describe	O
the	O
data	O
well	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Exploratory	B-General_Concept
data	I-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
should	O
be	O
interpreted	O
carefully	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
important	O
to	O
always	O
adjust	O
the	O
significance	O
level	O
when	O
testing	O
multiple	O
models	O
with	O
,	O
for	O
example	O
,	O
a	O
Bonferroni	B-General_Concept
correction	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Also	O
,	O
one	O
should	O
not	O
follow	O
up	O
an	O
exploratory	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
with	O
a	O
confirmatory	O
analysis	O
in	O
the	O
same	O
dataset	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
exploratory	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
is	O
used	O
to	O
find	O
ideas	O
for	O
a	O
theory	O
,	O
but	O
not	O
to	O
test	O
that	O
theory	O
as	O
well	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
confirmatory	O
analysis	O
therefore	O
will	O
not	O
be	O
more	O
informative	O
than	O
the	O
original	O
exploratory	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Cross-validation	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Cross-validation	B-Application
is	O
generally	O
inappropriate	O
,	O
though	O
,	O
if	O
there	O
are	O
correlations	O
within	O
the	O
data	O
,	O
e.g.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
way	O
to	O
do	O
that	O
is	O
via	O
bootstrapping	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Notable	O
free	O
software	O
for	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
include	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
DevInfo	B-Application
–	O
A	O
database	O
system	O
endorsed	O
by	O
the	O
United	O
Nations	O
Development	O
Group	O
for	O
monitoring	O
and	O
analyzing	O
human	O
development	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ELKI	B-Language
–	O
Data	B-Application
mining	I-Application
framework	O
in	O
Java	O
with	O
data	B-Application
mining	I-Application
oriented	O
visualization	O
functions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
KNIME	B-Language
–	O
The	O
Konstanz	O
Information	O
Miner	O
,	O
a	O
user	O
friendly	O
and	O
comprehensive	O
data	B-General_Concept
analytics	I-General_Concept
framework	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Orange	B-Application
–	O
A	O
visual	O
programming	O
tool	O
featuring	O
interactive	O
data	B-Application
visualization	I-Application
and	O
methods	O
for	O
statistical	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
,	O
data	B-Application
mining	I-Application
,	O
and	O
machine	O
learning	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Pandas	B-Application
–	O
Python	O
library	O
for	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
PAW	B-Application
–	O
FORTRAN/C	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
framework	O
developed	O
at	O
CERN	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
R	B-Language
–	O
A	O
programming	O
language	O
and	O
software	O
environment	O
for	O
statistical	O
computing	O
and	O
graphics	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ROOT	O
–	O
C++	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
framework	O
developed	O
at	O
CERN	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
SciPy	B-Application
–	O
Python	O
library	O
for	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Julia	B-Application
-	O
A	O
programming	O
language	O
well-suited	O
for	O
numerical	O
analysis	O
and	O
computational	O
science	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Different	O
companies	O
or	O
organizations	O
hold	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
contests	O
to	O
encourage	O
researchers	O
to	O
utilize	O
their	O
data	O
or	O
to	O
solve	O
a	O
particular	O
question	O
using	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
few	O
examples	O
of	O
well-known	O
international	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
contests	O
are	O
as	O
follows	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
Kaggle	B-Application
competition	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
held	O
by	O
Kaggle	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
LTPP	O
data	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
contest	O
held	O
by	O
FHWA	O
and	O
ASCE	O
.	O
</s>
