<s>
Conductive	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
or	O
,	O
more	O
precisely	O
,	O
intrinsically	O
conducting	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
(	O
ICPs	O
)	O
are	O
organic	O
polymers	B-Language
that	O
conduct	O
electricity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
biggest	O
advantage	O
of	O
conductive	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
is	O
their	O
processability	O
,	O
mainly	O
by	O
dispersion	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Conductive	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
are	O
generally	O
not	O
thermoplastics	O
,	O
i.e.	O
,	O
they	O
are	O
not	O
thermoformable	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
But	O
,	O
like	O
insulating	O
polymers	B-Language
,	O
they	O
are	O
organic	O
materials	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
They	O
can	O
offer	O
high	O
electrical	O
conductivity	O
but	O
do	O
not	O
show	O
similar	O
mechanical	O
properties	O
to	O
other	O
commercially	O
available	O
polymers	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Polyaniline	B-Algorithm
was	O
first	O
described	O
in	O
the	O
mid-19th	O
century	O
by	O
Henry	O
Letheby	O
,	O
who	O
investigated	O
the	O
electrochemical	O
and	O
chemical	O
oxidation	O
products	O
of	O
aniline	O
in	O
acidic	O
media	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
first	O
highly-conductive	O
organic	O
compounds	O
were	O
the	O
charge	B-Algorithm
transfer	I-Algorithm
complexes	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
1950s	O
,	O
researchers	O
reported	O
that	O
polycyclic	O
aromatic	O
compounds	O
formed	O
semi-conducting	O
charge-transfer	B-Algorithm
complex	I-Algorithm
salts	O
with	O
halogens	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1954	O
,	O
researchers	O
at	O
Bell	O
Labs	O
and	O
elsewhere	O
reported	O
organic	O
charge	B-Algorithm
transfer	I-Algorithm
complexes	I-Algorithm
with	O
resistivities	O
as	O
low	O
as	O
8	O
ohms-cm	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
early	O
1970s	O
,	O
researchers	O
demonstrated	O
salts	O
of	O
tetrathiafulvalene	B-Algorithm
show	O
almost	O
metallic	O
conductivity	O
,	O
while	O
superconductivity	O
was	O
demonstrated	O
in	O
1980	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
these	O
compounds	O
were	O
technically	O
not	O
polymers	B-Language
,	O
this	O
indicated	O
that	O
organic	O
compounds	O
can	O
carry	O
current	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Weiss	O
,	O
and	O
coworkers	O
reported	O
derivatives	O
of	O
polypyrrole	B-Algorithm
with	O
resistivities	O
as	O
low	O
as	O
1	O
ohm·cm	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
and	O
cite	O
multiple	O
reports	O
of	O
similar	O
high-conductivity	O
oxidized	O
polyacetylenes	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
With	O
the	O
notable	O
exception	O
of	O
charge	B-Algorithm
transfer	I-Algorithm
complexes	I-Algorithm
(	O
some	O
of	O
which	O
are	O
even	O
superconductors	O
)	O
,	O
organic	O
molecules	O
were	O
previously	O
considered	O
insulators	O
or	O
at	O
best	O
weakly	O
conducting	O
semiconductors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Subsequently	O
,	O
DeSurville	O
and	O
coworkers	O
reported	O
high	O
conductivity	O
in	O
a	O
polyaniline	B-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Likewise	O
,	O
in	O
1980	O
,	O
Diaz	O
and	O
Logan	O
reported	O
films	O
of	O
polyaniline	B-Algorithm
that	O
can	O
serve	O
as	O
electrodes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Examples	O
include	O
quantum	O
tunneling	O
,	O
negative	O
resistance	O
,	O
phonon-assisted	O
hopping	O
and	O
polarons	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1977	O
,	O
Alan	O
J	O
.	O
Heeger	O
,	O
Alan	O
MacDiarmid	O
and	O
Hideki	O
Shirakawa	O
reported	O
similar	O
high	O
conductivity	O
in	O
oxidized	O
iodine-doped	O
polyacetylene	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Polyacetylene	B-Language
itself	O
did	O
not	O
find	O
practical	O
applications	O
,	O
but	O
drew	O
the	O
attention	O
of	O
scientists	O
and	O
encouraged	O
the	O
rapid	O
growth	O
of	O
the	O
field	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
the	O
late	O
1980s	O
,	O
organic	B-Device
light-emitting	I-Device
diodes	I-Device
(	O
OLEDs	B-Device
)	O
have	O
emerged	O
as	O
an	O
important	O
application	O
of	O
conducting	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Linear-backbone	O
"	O
polymer	B-Language
blacks	O
"	O
(	O
polyacetylene	B-Language
,	O
polypyrrole	B-Algorithm
,	O
polyindole	O
and	O
polyaniline	B-Algorithm
)	O
and	O
their	O
copolymers	O
are	O
the	O
main	O
class	O
of	O
conductive	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Poly(p-phenylene vinylene )	O
(	O
PPV	O
)	O
and	O
its	O
soluble	O
derivatives	O
have	O
emerged	O
as	O
the	O
prototypical	O
electroluminescent	O
semiconducting	O
polymers	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
following	O
table	O
presents	O
some	O
organic	O
conductive	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
according	O
to	O
their	O
composition	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
polyanilines	B-Algorithm
(	O
PANI	O
)	O
The	O
S	O
is	O
in	O
the	O
aromatic	O
cycle	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
Conductive	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
are	O
prepared	O
by	O
many	O
methods	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Most	O
conductive	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
are	O
prepared	O
by	O
oxidative	O
coupling	O
of	O
monocyclic	O
precursors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
low	O
solubility	O
of	O
most	O
polymers	B-Language
presents	O
challenges	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Others	O
address	O
this	O
through	O
the	O
formation	O
of	O
nanostructures	O
and	O
surfactant-stabilized	O
conducting	B-Algorithm
polymer	I-Algorithm
dispersions	O
in	O
water	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
include	O
polyaniline	B-Algorithm
nanofibers	O
and	O
PEDOT:PSS	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
many	O
cases	O
,	O
the	O
molecular	O
weights	O
of	O
conductive	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
are	O
lower	O
than	O
conventional	O
polymers	B-Language
such	O
as	O
polyethylene	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
two	O
main	O
methods	O
used	O
to	O
synthesize	O
conductive	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
,	O
chemical	O
synthesis	O
and	O
electro	O
(	O
co	O
)	O
polymerization	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
applying	O
voltage	O
to	O
electrodes	O
,	O
redox	O
reaction	O
to	O
synthesize	O
polymer	B-Language
is	O
promoted	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
conductivity	O
of	O
such	O
polymers	B-Language
is	O
the	O
result	O
of	O
several	O
processes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
in	O
traditional	O
polymers	B-Language
such	O
as	O
polyethylenes	O
,	O
the	O
valence	O
electrons	O
are	O
bound	O
in	O
sp3	O
hybridized	O
covalent	O
bonds	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Conducting	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
have	O
backbones	O
of	O
contiguous	O
sp2	O
hybridized	O
carbon	O
centers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
band	O
structures	O
of	O
conductive	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
can	O
easily	O
be	O
calculated	O
with	O
a	O
tight	O
binding	O
model	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Although	O
typically	O
"	O
doping	O
"	O
conductive	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
involves	O
oxidizing	O
or	O
reducing	O
the	O
material	O
,	O
conductive	O
organic	O
polymers	B-Language
associated	O
with	O
a	O
protic	O
solvent	O
may	O
also	O
be	O
"	O
self-doped.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
Undoped	O
conjugated	O
polymers	B-Language
are	O
semiconductors	O
or	O
insulators	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Therefore	O
,	O
undoped	O
conjugated	O
polymers	B-Language
,	O
such	O
as	O
polythiophenes	B-Algorithm
,	O
polyacetylenes	B-Language
only	O
have	O
a	O
low	O
electrical	O
conductivity	O
of	O
around	O
10−10	O
to	O
10−8	O
S/cm	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Subsequent	O
doping	O
of	O
the	O
conducting	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
will	O
result	O
in	O
a	O
saturation	O
of	O
the	O
conductivity	O
at	O
values	O
around	O
0.1	O
–	O
10	O
kS/cm	O
(	O
10	O
–	O
1000	O
S/m	O
)	O
for	O
different	O
polymers	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Highest	O
values	O
reported	O
up	O
to	O
now	O
are	O
for	O
the	O
conductivity	O
of	O
stretch	O
oriented	O
polyacetylene	B-Language
with	O
confirmed	O
values	O
of	O
about	O
80	O
kS/cm	O
(	O
8	O
MS/m	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Although	O
the	O
pi-electrons	O
in	O
polyacetylene	B-Language
are	O
delocalized	O
along	O
the	O
chain	O
,	O
pristine	O
polyacetylene	B-Language
is	O
not	O
a	O
metal	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Polyacetylene	B-Language
has	O
alternating	O
single	O
and	O
double	O
bonds	O
which	O
have	O
lengths	O
of	O
1.44	O
and	O
1.36	O
Å	O
,	O
respectively	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Non-doping	O
increases	O
in	O
conductivity	O
can	O
also	O
be	O
accomplished	O
in	O
a	O
field	O
effect	O
transistor	O
(	O
organic	O
FET	O
or	O
OFET	B-Algorithm
)	O
and	O
by	O
irradiation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Generally	O
,	O
it	O
is	O
assumed	O
that	O
conductivity	O
should	O
be	O
higher	O
for	O
the	O
higher	O
degree	O
of	O
crystallinity	O
and	O
better	O
alignment	O
of	O
the	O
chains	O
,	O
however	O
this	O
could	O
not	O
be	O
confirmed	O
for	O
polyaniline	B-Algorithm
and	O
was	O
only	O
recently	O
confirmed	O
for	O
PEDOT	B-Algorithm
,	O
which	O
are	O
largely	O
amorphous	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Conductive	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
show	O
promise	O
in	O
antistatic	O
materials	O
and	O
they	O
have	O
been	O
incorporated	O
into	O
commercial	O
displays	O
and	O
batteries	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Literature	O
suggests	O
they	O
are	O
also	O
promising	O
in	O
organic	O
solar	O
cells	O
,	O
printed	O
electronic	O
circuits	O
,	O
organic	B-Device
light-emitting	I-Device
diodes	I-Device
,	O
actuators	B-Algorithm
,	O
electrochromism	B-Algorithm
,	O
supercapacitors	O
,	O
chemical	O
sensors	O
,	O
chemical	B-Algorithm
sensor	I-Algorithm
arrays	I-Algorithm
,	O
and	O
biosensors	O
,	O
flexible	O
transparent	O
displays	O
,	O
electromagnetic	O
shielding	O
and	O
possibly	O
replacement	O
for	O
the	O
popular	O
transparent	O
conductor	O
indium	O
tin	O
oxide	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Conducting	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
are	O
rapidly	O
gaining	O
attraction	O
in	O
new	O
applications	O
with	O
increasingly	O
processable	O
materials	O
with	O
better	O
electrical	O
and	O
physical	O
properties	O
and	O
lower	O
costs	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
new	O
nano-structured	O
forms	O
of	O
conducting	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
particularly	O
,	O
augment	O
this	O
field	O
with	O
their	O
higher	O
surface	O
area	O
and	O
better	O
dispersability	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Research	O
reports	O
showed	O
that	O
nanostructured	O
conducting	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
in	O
the	O
form	O
of	O
nanofibers	O
and	O
nanosponges	O
,	O
showed	O
significantly	O
improved	O
capacitance	O
values	O
as	O
compared	O
to	O
their	O
non-nanostructured	O
counterparts	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
With	O
the	O
availability	O
of	O
stable	O
and	O
reproducible	O
dispersions	O
,	O
PEDOT	B-Algorithm
and	O
polyaniline	B-Algorithm
have	O
gained	O
some	O
large-scale	O
applications	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
PEDOT	B-Algorithm
(poly(3 , 4-ethylenedioxythiophene )	O
)	O
is	O
mainly	O
used	O
in	O
antistatic	O
applications	O
and	O
as	O
a	O
transparent	O
conductive	O
layer	O
in	O
form	O
of	O
PEDOT:PSS	O
dispersions	O
(	O
PSS	O
=	O
polystyrene	O
sulfonic	O
acid	O
)	O
,	O
polyaniline	B-Algorithm
is	O
widely	O
used	O
for	O
printed	O
circuit	O
board	O
manufacturing	O
–	O
in	O
the	O
final	O
finish	O
,	O
for	O
protecting	O
copper	O
from	O
corrosion	O
and	O
preventing	O
its	O
solderability	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Moreover	O
,	O
Polyindole	O
is	O
also	O
starting	O
to	O
gain	O
attention	O
for	O
various	O
applications	O
due	O
to	O
its	O
high	O
redox	O
activity	O
,	O
thermal	O
stability	O
,	O
and	O
slow	O
degradation	O
properties	O
than	O
competitors	O
polyaniline	B-Algorithm
and	O
polypyrrole	B-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
some	O
cases	O
,	O
similar	O
light	O
emission	O
is	O
observed	O
when	O
a	O
voltage	O
is	O
applied	O
to	O
a	O
thin	O
layer	O
of	O
a	O
conductive	O
organic	O
polymer	B-Language
film	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
electroluminescence	O
was	O
originally	O
mostly	O
of	O
academic	O
interest	O
,	O
the	O
increased	O
conductivity	O
of	O
modern	O
conductive	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
means	O
enough	O
power	O
can	O
be	O
put	O
through	O
the	O
device	O
at	O
low	O
voltages	O
to	O
generate	O
practical	O
amounts	O
of	O
light	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
property	O
has	O
led	O
to	O
the	O
development	O
of	O
flat	B-General_Concept
panel	I-General_Concept
displays	I-General_Concept
using	O
organic	B-Device
LEDs	I-Device
,	O
solar	O
panels	O
,	O
and	O
optical	O
amplifiers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
most	O
conductive	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
require	O
oxidative	O
doping	O
,	O
the	O
properties	O
of	O
the	O
resulting	O
state	O
are	O
crucial	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Such	O
materials	O
are	O
salt-like	O
(	O
polymer	B-Language
salt	O
)	O
,	O
which	O
diminishes	O
their	O
solubility	O
in	O
organic	O
solvents	O
and	O
water	O
and	O
hence	O
their	O
processability	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
poor	O
processability	O
for	O
many	O
polymers	B-Language
requires	O
the	O
introduction	O
of	O
solubilizing	O
or	O
substituents	O
,	O
which	O
can	O
further	O
complicate	O
the	O
synthesis	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Experimental	O
and	O
theoretical	O
thermodynamical	O
evidence	O
suggests	O
that	O
conductive	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
may	O
even	O
be	O
completely	O
and	O
principally	O
insoluble	O
so	O
that	O
they	O
can	O
only	O
be	O
processed	O
by	O
dispersion	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Most	O
recent	O
emphasis	O
is	O
on	O
organic	B-Device
light	I-Device
emitting	I-Device
diodes	I-Device
and	O
organic	O
polymer	B-Language
solar	O
cells	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Organic	O
Electronics	O
Association	O
is	O
an	O
international	O
platform	O
to	O
promote	O
applications	O
of	O
organic	B-Algorithm
semiconductors	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Conductive	B-Algorithm
polymer	I-Algorithm
products	O
with	O
embedded	O
and	O
improved	O
electromagnetic	O
interference	O
(	O
EMI	O
)	O
and	O
electrostatic	O
discharge	O
(	O
ESD	O
)	O
protection	O
have	O
led	O
to	O
both	O
prototypes	O
and	O
products	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
Polymer	B-Language
Electronics	O
Research	O
Center	O
at	O
University	O
of	O
Auckland	O
is	O
developing	O
a	O
range	O
of	O
novel	O
DNA	O
sensor	O
technologies	O
based	O
on	O
conducting	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
,	O
photoluminescent	O
polymers	B-Language
and	O
inorganic	O
nanocrystals	O
(	O
quantum	O
dots	O
)	O
for	O
simple	O
,	O
rapid	O
and	O
sensitive	O
gene	O
detection	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Typical	O
conductive	B-Algorithm
polymers	I-Algorithm
must	O
be	O
"	O
doped	O
"	O
to	O
produce	O
high	O
conductivity	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
of	O
2001	O
,	O
there	O
remains	O
to	O
be	O
discovered	O
an	O
organic	O
polymer	B-Language
that	O
is	O
intrinsically	O
electrically	O
conducting	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Recently	O
(	O
as	O
of	O
2020	O
)	O
,	O
researchers	O
from	O
IMDEA	O
Nanoscience	O
Institute	O
reported	O
experimental	O
demonstration	O
of	O
the	O
rational	O
engineering	O
of	O
1D	O
polymers	B-Language
that	O
are	O
located	O
near	O
the	O
quantum	O
phase	O
transition	O
from	O
the	O
topologically	O
trivial	O
to	O
non-trivial	O
class	O
,	O
thus	O
featuring	O
a	O
narrow	O
bandgap	O
.	O
</s>
