<s>
Computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
is	O
the	O
study	O
of	O
computation	O
,	O
information	O
,	O
and	O
automation	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
spans	O
theoretical	O
disciplines	O
(	O
such	O
as	O
algorithms	O
,	O
theory	O
of	O
computation	O
,	O
and	O
information	O
theory	O
)	O
to	O
applied	O
disciplines	O
(	O
including	O
the	O
design	O
and	O
implementation	O
of	O
hardware	B-Architecture
and	O
software	B-General_Concept
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Though	O
more	O
often	O
considered	O
an	O
academic	O
discipline	O
,	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
is	O
closely	O
related	O
to	O
computer	B-General_Concept
programming	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Algorithms	O
and	O
data	B-General_Concept
structures	I-General_Concept
are	O
central	O
to	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Human	O
–	O
computer	O
interaction	O
investigates	O
the	O
interfaces	O
through	O
which	O
humans	O
and	O
computers	O
interact	O
,	O
and	O
software	B-General_Concept
engineering	I-General_Concept
focuses	O
on	O
the	O
design	O
and	O
principles	O
behind	O
developing	O
software	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Areas	O
such	O
as	O
operating	B-General_Concept
systems	I-General_Concept
,	O
networks	O
and	O
embedded	B-Architecture
systems	I-Architecture
investigate	O
the	O
principles	O
and	O
design	O
behind	O
complex	O
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Computer	B-General_Concept
architecture	I-General_Concept
describes	O
the	O
construction	O
of	O
computer	B-Architecture
components	I-Architecture
and	O
computer-operated	O
equipment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
and	O
machine	O
learning	O
aim	O
to	O
synthesize	O
goal-orientated	O
processes	O
such	O
as	O
problem-solving	O
,	O
decision-making	O
,	O
environmental	O
adaptation	O
,	O
planning	B-Application
and	O
learning	O
found	O
in	O
humans	O
and	O
animals	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Within	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
,	O
computer	B-Application
vision	I-Application
aims	O
to	O
understand	O
and	O
process	O
image	O
and	O
video	O
data	O
,	O
while	O
natural	B-Language
language	I-Language
processing	I-Language
aims	O
to	O
understand	O
and	O
process	O
textual	O
and	O
linguistic	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
fundamental	O
concern	O
of	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
is	O
determining	O
what	O
can	O
and	O
cannot	O
be	O
automated	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Turing	O
Award	O
is	O
generally	O
recognized	O
as	O
the	O
highest	O
distinction	O
in	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
earliest	O
foundations	O
of	O
what	O
would	O
become	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
predate	O
the	O
invention	O
of	O
the	O
modern	O
digital	O
computer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Machines	O
for	O
calculating	O
fixed	O
numerical	O
tasks	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
abacus	B-Application
have	O
existed	O
since	O
antiquity	O
,	O
aiding	O
in	O
computations	O
such	O
as	O
multiplication	O
and	O
division	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Charles	O
Babbage	O
started	O
the	O
design	O
of	O
the	O
first	O
automatic	O
mechanical	O
calculator	O
,	O
his	O
Difference	O
Engine	O
,	O
in	O
1822	O
,	O
which	O
eventually	O
gave	O
him	O
the	O
idea	O
of	O
the	O
first	O
programmable	O
mechanical	O
calculator	O
,	O
his	O
Analytical	B-Device
Engine	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
"	O
A	O
crucial	O
step	O
was	O
the	O
adoption	O
of	O
a	O
punched	B-Architecture
card	I-Architecture
system	O
derived	O
from	O
the	O
Jacquard	O
loom	O
"	O
making	O
it	O
infinitely	O
programmable	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1843	O
,	O
during	O
the	O
translation	O
of	O
a	O
French	O
article	O
on	O
the	B-Device
Analytical	I-Device
Engine	I-Device
,	O
Ada	B-General_Concept
Lovelace	I-General_Concept
wrote	O
,	O
in	O
one	O
of	O
the	O
many	O
notes	O
she	O
included	O
,	O
an	O
algorithm	O
to	O
compute	O
the	O
Bernoulli	O
numbers	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
considered	O
to	O
be	O
the	O
first	O
published	O
algorithm	O
ever	O
specifically	O
tailored	O
for	O
implementation	O
on	O
a	O
computer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Around	O
1885	O
,	O
Herman	O
Hollerith	O
invented	O
the	O
tabulator	O
,	O
which	O
used	O
punched	B-Architecture
cards	I-Architecture
to	O
process	O
statistical	O
information	O
;	O
eventually	O
his	O
company	O
became	O
part	O
of	O
IBM	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Following	O
Babbage	O
,	O
although	O
unaware	O
of	O
his	O
earlier	O
work	O
,	O
Percy	O
Ludgate	O
in	O
1909	O
published	O
the	O
2nd	O
of	O
the	O
only	O
two	O
designs	O
for	O
mechanical	O
analytical	B-Device
engines	I-Device
in	O
history	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1937	O
,	O
one	O
hundred	O
years	O
after	O
Babbage	O
's	O
impossible	O
dream	O
,	O
Howard	O
Aiken	O
convinced	O
IBM	O
,	O
which	O
was	O
making	O
all	O
kinds	O
of	O
punched	B-Architecture
card	I-Architecture
equipment	O
and	O
was	O
also	O
in	O
the	O
calculator	O
business	O
to	O
develop	O
his	O
giant	O
programmable	O
calculator	O
,	O
the	O
ASCC/Harvard	B-Device
Mark	I-Device
I	I-Device
,	O
based	O
on	O
Babbage	O
's	O
Analytical	B-Device
Engine	I-Device
,	O
which	O
itself	O
used	O
cards	O
and	O
a	O
central	O
computing	O
unit	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
During	O
the	O
1940s	O
,	O
with	O
the	O
development	O
of	O
new	O
and	O
more	O
powerful	O
computing	O
machines	O
such	O
as	O
the	B-Device
Atanasoff	I-Device
–	I-Device
Berry	I-Device
computer	I-Device
and	O
ENIAC	B-Device
,	O
the	O
term	O
computer	O
came	O
to	O
refer	O
to	O
the	O
machines	O
rather	O
than	O
their	O
human	O
predecessors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
it	O
became	O
clear	O
that	O
computers	O
could	O
be	O
used	O
for	O
more	O
than	O
just	O
mathematical	O
calculations	O
,	O
the	O
field	O
of	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
broadened	O
to	O
study	O
computation	O
in	O
general	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Ultimately	O
,	O
the	O
close	O
relationship	O
between	O
IBM	O
and	O
Columbia	O
University	O
was	O
instrumental	O
in	O
the	O
emergence	O
of	O
a	O
new	O
scientific	O
discipline	O
,	O
with	O
Columbia	O
offering	O
one	O
of	O
the	O
first	O
academic-credit	O
courses	O
in	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
in	O
1946	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
began	O
to	O
be	O
established	O
as	O
a	O
distinct	O
academic	O
discipline	O
in	O
the	O
1950s	O
and	O
early	O
1960s	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
world	O
's	O
first	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
degree	O
program	O
,	O
the	O
Cambridge	O
Diploma	O
in	O
Computer	B-General_Concept
Science	I-General_Concept
,	O
began	O
at	O
the	O
University	O
of	O
Cambridge	O
Computer	O
Laboratory	O
in	O
1953	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
first	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
department	O
in	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
was	O
formed	O
at	O
Purdue	O
University	O
in	O
1962	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Although	O
first	O
proposed	O
in	O
1956	O
,	O
the	O
term	O
"	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
"	O
appears	O
in	O
a	O
1959	O
article	O
in	O
Communications	O
of	O
the	O
ACM	O
,	O
</s>
<s>
in	O
which	O
Louis	O
Fein	O
argues	O
for	O
the	O
creation	O
of	O
a	O
Graduate	O
School	O
in	O
Computer	B-General_Concept
Sciences	I-General_Concept
analogous	O
to	O
the	O
creation	O
of	O
Harvard	O
Business	O
School	O
in	O
1921	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
His	O
efforts	O
,	O
and	O
those	O
of	O
others	O
such	O
as	O
numerical	B-General_Concept
analyst	I-General_Concept
George	O
Forsythe	O
,	O
were	O
rewarded	O
:	O
universities	O
went	O
on	O
to	O
create	O
such	O
departments	O
,	O
starting	O
with	O
Purdue	O
in	O
1962	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Despite	O
its	O
name	O
,	O
a	O
significant	O
amount	O
of	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
does	O
not	O
involve	O
the	O
study	O
of	O
computers	O
themselves	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Certain	O
departments	O
of	O
major	O
universities	O
prefer	O
the	O
term	O
computing	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
,	O
to	O
emphasize	O
precisely	O
that	O
difference	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Danish	O
scientist	O
Peter	O
Naur	O
suggested	O
the	O
term	O
datalogy	B-General_Concept
,	O
to	O
reflect	O
the	O
fact	O
that	O
the	O
scientific	O
discipline	O
revolves	O
around	O
data	O
and	O
data	O
treatment	O
,	O
while	O
not	O
necessarily	O
involving	O
computers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
first	O
scientific	O
institution	O
to	O
use	O
the	O
term	O
was	O
the	O
Department	O
of	O
Datalogy	B-General_Concept
at	O
the	O
University	O
of	O
Copenhagen	O
,	O
founded	O
in	O
1969	O
,	O
with	O
Peter	O
Naur	O
being	O
the	O
first	O
professor	O
in	O
datalogy	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
alternative	O
term	O
,	O
also	O
proposed	O
by	O
Naur	O
,	O
is	O
data	O
science	O
;	O
this	O
is	O
now	O
used	O
for	O
a	O
multi-disciplinary	O
field	O
of	O
data	O
analysis	O
,	O
including	O
statistics	B-Algorithm
and	O
databases	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
folkloric	O
quotation	O
,	O
often	O
attributed	O
to	O
—	O
but	O
almost	O
certainly	O
not	O
first	O
formulated	O
by	O
—	O
Edsger	O
Dijkstra	O
,	O
states	O
that	O
"	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
is	O
no	O
more	O
about	O
computers	O
than	O
astronomy	O
is	O
about	O
telescopes.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
design	O
and	O
deployment	O
of	O
computers	O
and	O
computer	O
systems	O
is	O
generally	O
considered	O
the	O
province	O
of	O
disciplines	O
other	O
than	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
the	O
study	O
of	O
computer	B-Architecture
hardware	I-Architecture
is	O
usually	O
considered	O
part	O
of	O
computer	O
engineering	O
,	O
while	O
the	O
study	O
of	O
commercial	O
computer	O
systems	O
and	O
their	O
deployment	O
is	O
often	O
called	O
information	O
technology	O
or	O
information	O
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
research	O
also	O
often	O
intersects	O
other	O
disciplines	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
cognitive	O
science	O
,	O
linguistics	O
,	O
mathematics	O
,	O
physics	O
,	O
biology	O
,	O
Earth	O
science	O
,	O
statistics	B-Algorithm
,	O
philosophy	O
,	O
and	O
logic	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
is	O
considered	O
by	O
some	O
to	O
have	O
a	O
much	O
closer	O
relationship	O
with	O
mathematics	O
than	O
many	O
scientific	O
disciplines	O
,	O
with	O
some	O
observers	O
saying	O
that	O
computing	O
is	O
a	O
mathematical	O
science	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Early	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
was	O
strongly	O
influenced	O
by	O
the	O
work	O
of	O
mathematicians	O
such	O
as	O
Kurt	O
Gödel	O
,	O
Alan	O
Turing	O
,	O
John	O
von	O
Neumann	O
,	O
Rózsa	O
Péter	O
and	O
Alonzo	O
Church	O
and	O
there	O
continues	O
to	O
be	O
a	O
useful	O
interchange	O
of	O
ideas	O
between	O
the	O
two	O
fields	O
in	O
areas	O
such	O
as	O
mathematical	O
logic	B-Application
,	O
category	O
theory	O
,	O
domain	O
theory	O
,	O
and	O
algebra	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
relationship	O
between	O
Computer	B-General_Concept
Science	I-General_Concept
and	O
Software	B-General_Concept
Engineering	I-General_Concept
is	O
a	O
contentious	O
issue	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
further	O
muddied	O
by	O
disputes	O
over	O
what	O
the	O
term	O
"	O
Software	B-General_Concept
Engineering	I-General_Concept
"	O
means	O
,	O
and	O
how	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
is	O
defined	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
David	O
Parnas	O
,	O
taking	O
a	O
cue	O
from	O
the	O
relationship	O
between	O
other	O
engineering	O
and	O
science	O
disciplines	O
,	O
has	O
claimed	O
that	O
the	O
principal	O
focus	O
of	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
is	O
studying	O
the	O
properties	O
of	O
computation	O
in	O
general	O
,	O
while	O
the	O
principal	O
focus	O
of	O
software	B-General_Concept
engineering	I-General_Concept
is	O
the	O
design	O
of	O
specific	O
computations	O
to	O
achieve	O
practical	O
goals	O
,	O
making	O
the	O
two	O
separate	O
but	O
complementary	O
disciplines	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
academic	O
,	O
political	O
,	O
and	O
funding	O
aspects	O
of	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
tend	O
to	O
depend	O
on	O
whether	O
a	O
department	O
is	O
formed	O
with	O
a	O
mathematical	O
emphasis	O
or	O
with	O
an	O
engineering	O
emphasis	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
departments	O
with	O
a	O
mathematics	O
emphasis	O
and	O
with	O
a	O
numerical	O
orientation	O
consider	O
alignment	O
with	O
computational	O
science	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Despite	O
the	O
word	O
"	O
science	O
"	O
in	O
its	O
name	O
,	O
there	O
is	O
debate	O
over	O
whether	O
or	O
not	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
is	O
a	O
discipline	O
of	O
science	O
,	O
mathematics	O
,	O
or	O
engineering	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Allen	O
Newell	O
and	O
Herbert	O
A	O
.	O
Simon	O
argued	O
in	O
1975	O
,	O
It	O
has	O
since	O
been	O
argued	O
that	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
can	O
be	O
classified	O
as	O
an	O
empirical	O
science	O
since	O
it	O
makes	O
use	O
of	O
empirical	O
testing	O
to	O
evaluate	O
the	O
correctness	O
of	O
programs	O
,	O
but	O
a	O
problem	O
remains	O
in	O
defining	O
the	O
laws	O
and	O
theorems	O
of	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
(	O
if	O
any	O
exist	O
)	O
and	O
defining	O
the	O
nature	O
of	O
experiments	O
in	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Proponents	O
of	O
classifying	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
as	O
an	O
engineering	O
discipline	O
argue	O
that	O
the	O
reliability	O
of	O
computational	O
systems	O
is	O
investigated	O
in	O
the	O
same	O
way	O
as	O
bridges	O
in	O
civil	O
engineering	O
and	O
airplanes	O
in	O
aerospace	O
engineering	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
They	O
also	O
argue	O
that	O
while	O
empirical	O
sciences	O
observe	O
what	O
presently	O
exists	O
,	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
observes	O
what	O
is	O
possible	O
to	O
exist	O
and	O
while	O
scientists	O
discover	O
laws	O
from	O
observation	O
,	O
no	O
proper	O
laws	O
have	O
been	O
found	O
in	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
and	O
it	O
is	O
instead	O
concerned	O
with	O
creating	O
phenomena	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Proponents	O
of	O
classifying	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
as	O
a	O
mathematical	O
discipline	O
argue	O
that	O
computer	O
programs	O
are	O
physical	O
realizations	O
of	O
mathematical	O
entities	O
and	O
programs	O
can	O
be	O
deductively	O
reasoned	O
through	O
mathematical	O
formal	B-Architecture
methods	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Computer	B-General_Concept
scientists	I-General_Concept
Edsger	O
W	O
.	O
Dijkstra	O
and	O
Tony	O
Hoare	O
regard	O
instructions	O
for	O
computer	O
programs	O
as	O
mathematical	O
sentences	O
and	O
interpret	O
formal	B-Application
semantics	I-Application
for	O
programming	O
languages	O
as	O
mathematical	O
axiomatic	O
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
number	O
of	O
computer	B-General_Concept
scientists	I-General_Concept
have	O
argued	O
for	O
the	O
distinction	O
of	O
three	O
separate	O
paradigms	O
in	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Amnon	O
H	O
.	O
Eden	O
described	O
them	O
as	O
the	O
"	O
rationalist	O
paradigm	O
"	O
(	O
which	O
treats	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
as	O
a	O
branch	O
of	O
mathematics	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
prevalent	O
in	O
theoretical	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
,	O
and	O
mainly	O
employs	O
deductive	O
reasoning	O
)	O
,	O
the	O
"	O
technocratic	O
paradigm	O
"	O
(	O
which	O
might	O
be	O
found	O
in	O
engineering	O
approaches	O
,	O
most	O
prominently	O
in	O
software	B-General_Concept
engineering	I-General_Concept
)	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
"	O
scientific	O
paradigm	O
"	O
(	O
which	O
approaches	O
computer-related	O
artifacts	O
from	O
the	O
empirical	O
perspective	O
of	O
natural	O
sciences	O
,	O
identifiable	O
in	O
some	O
branches	O
of	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
focuses	O
on	O
methods	O
involved	O
in	O
design	O
,	O
specification	B-Application
,	O
programming	O
,	O
verification	O
,	O
implementation	O
and	O
testing	O
of	O
human-made	O
computing	O
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
a	O
discipline	O
,	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
spans	O
a	O
range	O
of	O
topics	O
from	O
theoretical	O
studies	O
of	O
algorithms	O
and	O
the	O
limits	O
of	O
computation	O
to	O
the	O
practical	O
issues	O
of	O
implementing	O
computing	O
systems	O
in	O
hardware	B-Architecture
and	O
software	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
CSAB	O
,	O
formerly	O
called	O
Computing	B-General_Concept
Sciences	I-General_Concept
Accreditation	O
Board	O
—	O
which	O
is	O
made	O
up	O
of	O
representatives	O
of	O
the	O
Association	O
for	O
Computing	O
Machinery	O
(	O
ACM	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
IEEE	O
Computer	O
Society	O
(	O
IEEE	O
CS	O
)	O
—	O
identifies	O
four	O
areas	O
that	O
it	O
considers	O
crucial	O
to	O
the	O
discipline	O
of	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
:	O
theory	O
of	O
computation	O
,	O
algorithms	O
and	O
data	B-General_Concept
structures	I-General_Concept
,	O
programming	O
methodology	O
and	O
languages	O
,	O
and	O
computer	O
elements	O
and	O
architecture	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
addition	O
to	O
these	O
four	O
areas	O
,	O
CSAB	O
also	O
identifies	O
fields	O
such	O
as	O
software	B-General_Concept
engineering	I-General_Concept
,	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
,	O
computer	B-Architecture
networking	I-Architecture
and	O
communication	O
,	O
database	O
systems	O
,	O
parallel	O
computation	O
,	O
distributed	O
computation	O
,	O
human	O
–	O
computer	O
interaction	O
,	O
computer	O
graphics	O
,	O
operating	B-General_Concept
systems	I-General_Concept
,	O
and	O
numerical	O
and	O
symbolic	B-Algorithm
computation	I-Algorithm
as	O
being	O
important	O
areas	O
of	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Theoretical	O
Computer	B-General_Concept
Science	I-General_Concept
is	O
mathematical	O
and	O
abstract	O
in	O
spirit	O
,	O
but	O
it	O
derives	O
its	O
motivation	O
from	O
the	O
practical	O
and	O
everyday	O
computation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
According	O
to	O
Peter	O
Denning	O
,	O
the	O
fundamental	O
question	O
underlying	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
is	O
,	O
"	O
What	O
can	O
be	O
automated	O
?	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
Information	O
theory	O
,	O
closely	O
related	O
to	O
probability	O
and	O
statistics	B-Algorithm
,	O
is	O
related	O
to	O
the	O
quantification	O
of	O
information	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Coding	B-Error_Name
theory	I-Error_Name
is	O
the	O
study	O
of	O
the	O
properties	O
of	O
codes	O
(	O
systems	O
for	O
converting	O
information	O
from	O
one	O
form	O
to	O
another	O
)	O
and	O
their	O
fitness	O
for	O
a	O
specific	O
application	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Codes	O
are	O
used	O
for	O
data	B-General_Concept
compression	I-General_Concept
,	O
cryptography	O
,	O
error	B-Error_Name
detection	I-Error_Name
and	I-Error_Name
correction	I-Error_Name
,	O
and	O
more	O
recently	O
also	O
for	O
network	B-Architecture
coding	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Data	B-General_Concept
structures	I-General_Concept
and	O
algorithms	O
are	O
the	O
studies	O
of	O
commonly	O
used	O
computational	O
methods	O
and	O
their	O
computational	O
efficiency	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Programming	O
language	O
theory	O
is	O
a	O
branch	O
of	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
that	O
deals	O
with	O
the	O
design	O
,	O
implementation	O
,	O
analysis	O
,	O
characterization	O
,	O
and	O
classification	O
of	O
programming	O
languages	O
and	O
their	O
individual	O
features	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
falls	O
within	O
the	O
discipline	O
of	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
,	O
both	O
depending	O
on	O
and	O
affecting	O
mathematics	O
,	O
software	B-General_Concept
engineering	I-General_Concept
,	O
and	O
linguistics	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Formal	B-Architecture
methods	I-Architecture
are	O
a	O
particular	O
kind	O
of	O
mathematically	O
based	O
technique	O
for	O
the	O
specification	B-Application
,	O
development	O
and	O
verification	O
of	O
software	B-General_Concept
and	O
hardware	B-Architecture
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
use	O
of	O
formal	B-Architecture
methods	I-Architecture
for	O
software	B-General_Concept
and	O
hardware	B-General_Concept
design	I-General_Concept
is	O
motivated	O
by	O
the	O
expectation	O
that	O
,	O
as	O
in	O
other	O
engineering	O
disciplines	O
,	O
performing	O
appropriate	O
mathematical	O
analysis	O
can	O
contribute	O
to	O
the	O
reliability	O
and	O
robustness	O
of	O
a	O
design	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
They	O
form	O
an	O
important	O
theoretical	O
underpinning	O
for	O
software	B-General_Concept
engineering	I-General_Concept
,	O
especially	O
where	O
safety	O
or	O
security	O
is	O
involved	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Formal	B-Architecture
methods	I-Architecture
are	O
a	O
useful	O
adjunct	O
to	O
software	B-General_Concept
testing	O
since	O
they	O
help	O
avoid	O
errors	O
and	O
can	O
also	O
give	O
a	O
framework	O
for	O
testing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
the	O
high	O
cost	O
of	O
using	O
formal	B-Architecture
methods	I-Architecture
means	O
that	O
they	O
are	O
usually	O
only	O
used	O
in	O
the	O
development	O
of	O
high-integrity	O
and	O
life-critical	B-Application
systems	I-Application
,	O
where	O
safety	O
or	O
security	O
is	O
of	O
utmost	O
importance	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Formal	B-Architecture
methods	I-Architecture
are	O
best	O
described	O
as	O
the	O
application	O
of	O
a	O
fairly	O
broad	O
variety	O
of	O
theoretical	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
fundamentals	O
,	O
in	O
particular	O
logic	B-Application
calculi	O
,	O
formal	O
languages	O
,	O
automata	B-Application
theory	I-Application
,	O
and	O
program	B-Application
semantics	I-Application
,	O
but	O
also	O
type	O
systems	O
and	O
algebraic	O
data	O
types	O
to	O
problems	O
in	O
software	B-General_Concept
and	O
hardware	B-Architecture
specification	B-Application
and	O
verification	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
study	O
is	O
connected	O
to	O
many	O
other	O
fields	O
in	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
,	O
including	O
computer	B-Application
vision	I-Application
,	O
image	B-Algorithm
processing	I-Algorithm
,	O
and	O
computational	O
geometry	O
,	O
and	O
is	O
heavily	O
applied	O
in	O
the	O
fields	O
of	O
special	O
effects	O
and	O
video	O
games	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
field	O
plays	O
important	O
role	O
in	O
information	O
theory	O
,	O
telecommunications	O
,	O
information	O
engineering	O
and	O
has	O
applications	O
in	O
medical	B-Algorithm
image	I-Algorithm
computing	I-Algorithm
and	O
speech	B-Application
synthesis	I-Application
,	O
among	O
others	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
is	O
one	O
of	O
unsolved	O
problems	O
in	O
theoretical	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Scientific	O
computing	O
(	O
or	O
computational	O
science	O
)	O
is	O
the	O
field	O
of	O
study	O
concerned	O
with	O
constructing	O
mathematical	O
models	O
and	O
quantitative	B-General_Concept
analysis	I-General_Concept
techniques	O
and	O
using	O
computers	O
to	O
analyze	O
and	O
solve	O
scientific	O
problems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Notable	O
in	O
electrical	O
and	O
electronic	O
circuit	O
design	O
are	O
SPICE	O
,	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
software	B-General_Concept
for	O
physical	O
realization	O
of	O
new	O
(	O
or	O
modified	O
)	O
designs	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
latter	O
includes	O
essential	O
design	O
software	B-General_Concept
for	O
integrated	O
circuits	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Software	B-General_Concept
engineering	I-General_Concept
is	O
the	O
study	O
of	O
designing	O
,	O
implementing	O
,	O
and	O
modifying	O
the	O
software	B-General_Concept
in	O
order	O
to	O
ensure	O
it	O
is	O
of	O
high	O
quality	O
,	O
affordable	O
,	O
maintainable	O
,	O
and	O
fast	O
to	O
build	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
a	O
systematic	O
approach	O
to	O
software	B-General_Concept
design	O
,	O
involving	O
the	O
application	O
of	O
engineering	O
practices	O
to	O
software	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Software	B-General_Concept
engineering	I-General_Concept
deals	O
with	O
the	O
organizing	O
and	O
analyzing	O
of	O
software	B-General_Concept
—	O
it	O
does	O
not	O
just	O
deal	O
with	O
the	O
creation	O
or	O
manufacture	O
of	O
new	O
software	B-General_Concept
,	O
but	O
its	O
internal	O
arrangement	O
and	O
maintenance	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
software	B-General_Concept
testing	O
,	O
systems	O
engineering	O
,	O
technical	O
debt	O
and	O
software	B-General_Concept
development	O
processes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
(	O
AI	B-Application
)	O
aims	O
to	O
or	O
is	O
required	O
to	O
synthesize	O
goal-orientated	O
processes	O
such	O
as	O
problem-solving	O
,	O
decision-making	O
,	O
environmental	O
adaptation	O
,	O
learning	O
,	O
and	O
communication	O
found	O
in	O
humans	O
and	O
animals	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
From	O
its	O
origins	O
in	O
cybernetics	O
and	O
in	O
the	O
Dartmouth	O
Conference	O
(	O
1956	O
)	O
,	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
research	I-Application
has	O
been	O
necessarily	O
cross-disciplinary	O
,	O
drawing	O
on	O
areas	O
of	O
expertise	O
such	O
as	O
applied	O
mathematics	O
,	O
symbolic	O
logic	B-Application
,	O
semiotics	O
,	O
electrical	O
engineering	O
,	O
philosophy	O
of	O
mind	O
,	O
neurophysiology	O
,	O
and	O
social	O
intelligence	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
AI	B-Application
is	O
associated	O
in	O
the	O
popular	O
mind	O
with	O
robotic	O
development	O
,	O
but	O
the	O
main	O
field	O
of	O
practical	O
application	O
has	O
been	O
as	O
an	O
embedded	O
component	O
in	O
areas	O
of	O
software	B-General_Concept
development	O
,	O
which	O
require	O
computational	O
understanding	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
But	O
the	O
automation	B-Application
of	O
evaluative	O
and	O
predictive	O
tasks	O
has	O
been	O
increasingly	O
successful	O
as	O
a	O
substitute	O
for	O
human	O
monitoring	O
and	O
intervention	O
in	O
domains	O
of	O
computer	O
application	O
involving	O
complex	O
real-world	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Computer	B-General_Concept
architecture	I-General_Concept
,	O
or	O
digital	O
computer	B-General_Concept
organization	I-General_Concept
,	O
is	O
the	O
conceptual	O
design	O
and	O
fundamental	O
operational	O
structure	O
of	O
a	O
computer	O
system	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Computer	O
engineers	O
study	O
computational	O
logic	B-Application
and	O
design	O
of	O
computer	B-Architecture
hardware	I-Architecture
,	O
from	O
individual	O
processor	O
components	O
,	O
microcontrollers	B-Architecture
,	O
personal	B-Device
computers	I-Device
to	O
supercomputers	B-Architecture
and	O
embedded	B-Architecture
systems	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
number	O
of	O
mathematical	O
models	O
have	O
been	O
developed	O
for	O
general	O
concurrent	O
computation	O
including	O
Petri	B-Operating_System
nets	I-Operating_System
,	O
process	O
calculi	O
and	O
the	O
Parallel	B-Operating_System
Random	I-Operating_System
Access	I-Operating_System
Machine	I-Operating_System
model	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
multiple	O
computers	O
are	O
connected	O
in	O
a	O
network	B-Architecture
while	O
using	O
concurrency	O
,	O
this	O
is	O
known	O
as	O
a	O
distributed	O
system	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
branch	O
of	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
aims	O
to	O
manage	O
networks	O
between	O
computers	O
worldwide	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Technologies	O
studied	O
in	O
modern	O
cryptography	O
include	O
symmetric	O
and	O
asymmetric	O
encryption	O
,	O
digital	O
signatures	O
,	O
cryptographic	B-Algorithm
hash	I-Algorithm
functions	I-Algorithm
,	O
key-agreement	B-Protocol
protocols	I-Protocol
,	O
blockchain	B-Application
,	O
zero-knowledge	B-Protocol
proofs	I-Protocol
,	O
and	O
garbled	B-Protocol
circuits	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
Digital	O
databases	O
are	O
managed	O
using	O
database	O
management	O
systems	O
to	O
store	O
,	O
create	O
,	O
maintain	O
,	O
and	O
search	O
data	O
,	O
through	O
database	B-General_Concept
models	I-General_Concept
and	O
query	B-Language
languages	I-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
philosopher	O
of	O
computing	O
Bill	O
Rapaport	O
noted	O
three	O
Great	O
Insights	O
of	O
Computer	B-General_Concept
Science	I-General_Concept
:	O
</s>
<s>
Note	O
that	O
the	O
three	O
rules	O
of	O
Boehm	O
's	O
and	O
Jacopini	O
's	O
insight	O
can	O
be	O
further	O
simplified	O
with	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
goto	B-Application
(	O
which	O
means	O
it	O
is	O
more	O
elementary	O
than	O
structured	B-Language
programming	I-Language
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Functional	B-Language
programming	I-Language
,	O
a	O
style	O
of	O
building	O
the	O
structure	O
and	O
elements	O
of	O
computer	O
programs	O
that	O
treats	O
computation	O
as	O
the	O
evaluation	O
of	O
mathematical	O
functions	O
and	O
avoids	O
state	O
and	O
mutable	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Imperative	B-Application
programming	I-Application
,	O
a	O
programming	O
paradigm	O
that	O
uses	O
statements	O
that	O
change	O
a	O
program	O
's	O
state	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
much	O
the	O
same	O
way	O
that	O
the	O
imperative	B-Application
mood	O
in	O
natural	O
languages	O
expresses	O
commands	O
,	O
an	O
imperative	B-Application
program	I-Application
consists	O
of	O
commands	O
for	O
the	O
computer	O
to	O
perform	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Imperative	B-Application
programming	I-Application
focuses	O
on	O
describing	O
how	O
a	O
program	O
operates	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Object-oriented	B-Language
programming	I-Language
,	O
a	O
programming	O
paradigm	O
based	O
on	O
the	O
concept	O
of	O
"	O
objects	O
"	O
,	O
which	O
may	O
contain	O
data	O
,	O
in	O
the	O
form	O
of	O
fields	O
,	O
often	O
known	O
as	O
attributes	O
;	O
and	O
code	O
,	O
in	O
the	O
form	O
of	O
procedures	O
,	O
often	O
known	O
as	O
methods	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Thus	O
object-oriented	B-Language
computer	O
programs	O
are	O
made	O
out	O
of	O
objects	O
that	O
interact	O
with	O
one	O
another	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Conferences	O
are	O
important	O
events	O
for	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
research	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Unlike	O
in	O
most	O
other	O
academic	O
fields	O
,	O
in	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
,	O
the	O
prestige	O
of	O
conference	O
papers	O
is	O
greater	O
than	O
that	O
of	O
journal	O
publications	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Computer	B-General_Concept
Science	I-General_Concept
,	O
known	O
by	O
its	O
near	O
synonyms	O
,	O
Computing	O
,	O
Computer	O
Studies	O
,	O
has	O
been	O
taught	O
in	O
UK	O
schools	O
since	O
the	O
days	O
of	O
batch	B-General_Concept
processing	I-General_Concept
,	O
mark	O
sensitive	O
cards	O
and	O
paper	O
tape	O
but	O
usually	O
to	O
a	O
select	O
few	O
students	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
1981	O
,	O
the	O
BBC	O
produced	O
a	O
micro-computer	B-Device
and	O
classroom	B-Device
network	I-Device
and	O
Computer	O
Studies	O
became	O
common	O
for	O
GCE	O
O	O
level	O
students	O
(	O
11	O
–	O
16-year-old	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
Computer	B-General_Concept
Science	I-General_Concept
to	O
A	O
level	O
students	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
According	O
to	O
a	O
2010	O
report	O
by	O
the	O
Association	O
for	O
Computing	O
Machinery	O
(	O
ACM	O
)	O
and	O
Computer	B-General_Concept
Science	I-General_Concept
Teachers	O
Association	O
(	O
CSTA	O
)	O
,	O
only	O
14	O
out	O
of	O
50	O
states	O
have	O
adopted	O
significant	O
education	O
standards	O
for	O
high	O
school	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
According	O
to	O
a	O
2021	O
report	O
,	O
only	O
51%	O
of	O
high	O
schools	O
in	O
the	O
US	O
offer	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Israel	O
,	O
New	O
Zealand	O
,	O
and	O
South	O
Korea	O
have	O
included	O
computer	B-General_Concept
science	I-General_Concept
in	O
their	O
national	O
secondary	O
education	O
curricula	O
,	O
and	O
several	O
others	O
are	O
following	O
.	O
</s>
