<s>
Computer	B-Application
music	I-Application
is	O
the	O
application	O
of	O
computing	O
technology	O
in	O
music	O
composition	O
,	O
to	O
help	O
human	O
composers	O
create	O
new	O
music	O
or	O
to	O
have	O
computers	O
independently	O
create	O
music	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
with	O
algorithmic	O
composition	O
programs	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
includes	O
the	O
theory	O
and	O
application	O
of	O
new	O
and	O
existing	O
computer	O
software	O
technologies	O
and	O
basic	O
aspects	O
of	O
music	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
sound	O
synthesis	O
,	O
digital	B-General_Concept
signal	I-General_Concept
processing	I-General_Concept
,	O
sound	O
design	O
,	O
sonic	O
diffusion	O
,	O
acoustics	O
,	O
electrical	O
engineering	O
,	O
and	O
psychoacoustics	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
field	O
of	O
computer	B-Application
music	I-Application
can	O
trace	O
its	O
roots	O
back	O
to	O
the	O
origins	O
of	O
electronic	O
music	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
first	O
experiments	O
and	O
innovations	O
with	O
electronic	O
instruments	O
at	O
the	O
turn	O
of	O
the	O
20th	O
century	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Much	O
of	O
the	O
work	O
on	O
computer	B-Application
music	I-Application
has	O
drawn	O
on	O
the	O
relationship	O
between	O
music	O
and	O
mathematics	O
,	O
a	O
relationship	O
which	O
has	O
been	O
noted	O
since	O
the	O
Ancient	O
Greeks	O
described	O
the	O
"	O
harmony	O
of	O
the	O
spheres	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Musical	O
melodies	O
were	O
first	O
generated	O
by	O
the	O
computer	O
originally	O
named	O
the	O
CSIR	O
Mark	O
1	O
(	O
later	O
renamed	O
CSIRAC	B-Device
)	O
in	O
Australia	O
in	O
1950	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
world	O
's	O
first	O
computer	O
to	O
play	O
music	O
was	O
the	O
CSIR	O
Mark	O
1	O
(	O
later	O
named	O
CSIRAC	B-Device
)	O
,	O
which	O
was	O
designed	O
and	O
built	O
by	O
Trevor	O
Pearcey	O
and	O
Maston	O
Beard	O
in	O
the	O
late	O
1940s	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
the	O
CSIR	O
Mark	O
1	O
played	O
standard	O
repertoire	O
and	O
was	O
not	O
used	O
to	O
extend	O
musical	O
thinking	O
or	O
composition	O
practice	O
,	O
as	O
Max	O
Mathews	O
did	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
current	O
computer-music	B-Application
practice	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
first	O
music	O
to	O
be	O
performed	O
in	O
England	O
was	O
a	O
performance	O
of	O
the	O
British	O
National	O
Anthem	O
that	O
was	O
programmed	O
by	O
Christopher	O
Strachey	O
on	O
the	O
Ferranti	B-Device
Mark	I-Device
1	I-Device
,	O
late	O
in	O
1951	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Later	O
that	O
year	O
,	O
short	O
extracts	O
of	O
three	O
pieces	O
were	O
recorded	O
there	O
by	O
a	O
BBC	O
outside	O
broadcasting	O
unit	O
:	O
the	O
National	O
Anthem	O
,	O
"	O
Baa	O
,	O
Baa	O
,	O
Black	O
Sheep	O
"	O
,	O
and	O
"	O
In	O
the	O
Mood	O
"	O
;	O
this	O
is	O
recognized	O
as	O
the	O
earliest	O
recording	O
of	O
a	O
computer	O
to	O
play	O
music	O
as	O
the	O
CSIRAC	B-Device
music	O
was	O
never	O
recorded	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Max	O
Mathews	O
at	O
Bell	O
Laboratories	O
developed	O
the	O
influential	O
MUSIC	B-Application
I	I-Application
program	O
and	O
its	O
descendants	O
,	O
further	O
popularising	O
computer	B-Application
music	I-Application
through	O
a	O
1963	O
article	O
in	O
Science	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Early	O
computer-music	B-Application
programs	O
typically	O
did	O
not	O
run	O
in	O
real	B-General_Concept
time	I-General_Concept
,	O
although	O
the	O
first	O
experiments	O
on	O
CSIRAC	B-Device
and	O
the	O
Ferranti	B-Device
Mark	I-Device
1	I-Device
did	O
operate	O
in	O
real	B-General_Concept
time	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
May	O
1967	O
the	O
first	O
experiments	O
in	O
computer	B-Application
music	I-Application
in	O
Italy	O
were	O
carried	O
out	O
by	O
the	O
S	O
2F	O
M	O
studio	O
in	O
Florence	O
in	O
collaboration	O
with	O
General	O
Electric	O
Information	O
Systems	O
Italy	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
computer	B-Application
music	I-Application
this	O
subtle	O
ingredient	O
is	O
bought	O
at	O
a	O
high	O
computational	O
cost	O
,	O
both	O
in	O
terms	O
of	O
the	O
number	O
of	O
items	O
requiring	O
detail	O
in	O
a	O
score	O
and	O
in	O
the	O
amount	O
of	O
interpretive	O
work	O
the	O
instruments	O
must	O
produce	O
to	O
realize	O
this	O
detail	O
in	O
sound	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
Japan	O
,	O
experiments	O
in	O
computer	B-Application
music	I-Application
date	O
back	O
to	O
1962	O
,	O
when	O
Keio	O
University	O
professor	O
Sekine	O
and	O
Toshiba	O
engineer	O
Hayashi	O
experimented	O
with	O
the	O
computer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Later	O
Japanese	O
computer	B-Application
music	I-Application
compositions	O
include	O
a	O
piece	O
by	O
Kenjiro	O
Ezaki	O
presented	O
during	O
Osaka	O
Expo	O
'	O
70	O
and	O
"	O
Panoramic	O
Sonore	O
"	O
(	O
1974	O
)	O
by	O
music	O
critic	O
Akimichi	O
Takeda	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
then	O
,	O
Japanese	O
research	O
in	O
computer	B-Application
music	I-Application
has	O
largely	O
been	O
carried	O
out	O
for	O
commercial	O
purposes	O
in	O
popular	O
music	O
,	O
though	O
some	O
of	O
the	O
more	O
serious	O
Japanese	O
musicians	O
used	O
large	O
computer	O
systems	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
Fairlight	O
in	O
the	O
1970s	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
late	O
1970s	O
these	O
systems	O
became	O
commercialized	O
,	O
notably	O
by	O
systems	O
like	O
the	O
Roland	O
MC-8	O
Microcomposer	O
,	O
where	O
a	O
microprocessor-based	O
system	O
controls	O
an	O
analog	O
synthesizer	O
,	O
released	O
in	O
1978	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
addition	O
to	O
the	O
Yamaha	O
DX7	O
,	O
the	O
advent	O
of	O
inexpensive	O
digital	O
chips	B-Architecture
and	O
microcomputers	B-Architecture
opened	O
the	O
door	O
to	O
real-time	O
generation	O
of	O
computer	B-Application
music	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
the	O
1980s	O
,	O
Japanese	O
personal	O
computers	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
NEC	B-Device
PC-88	I-Device
came	O
installed	O
with	O
FM	O
synthesis	O
sound	O
chips	B-Architecture
and	O
featured	O
audio	B-Language
programming	I-Language
languages	I-Language
such	O
as	O
Music	B-Application
Macro	I-Application
Language	I-Application
(	O
MML	O
)	O
and	O
MIDI	O
interfaces	O
,	O
which	O
were	O
most	O
often	O
used	O
to	O
produce	O
video	O
game	O
music	O
,	O
or	O
chiptunes	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
the	O
early	O
1990s	O
,	O
the	O
performance	O
of	O
microprocessor-based	O
computers	O
reached	O
the	O
point	O
that	O
real-time	O
generation	O
of	O
computer	B-Application
music	I-Application
using	O
more	O
general	O
programs	O
and	O
algorithms	O
became	O
possible	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Advances	O
in	O
computing	O
power	O
and	O
software	O
for	O
manipulation	O
of	O
digital	O
media	O
have	O
dramatically	O
affected	O
the	O
way	O
computer	B-Application
music	I-Application
is	O
generated	O
and	O
performed	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Current-generation	O
micro-computers	B-Architecture
are	O
powerful	O
enough	O
to	O
perform	O
very	O
sophisticated	O
audio	O
synthesis	O
using	O
a	O
wide	O
variety	O
of	O
algorithms	O
and	O
approaches	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Computer	B-Application
music	I-Application
systems	O
and	O
approaches	O
are	O
now	O
ubiquitous	O
,	O
and	O
so	O
firmly	O
embedded	O
in	O
the	O
process	O
of	O
creating	O
music	O
that	O
we	O
hardly	O
give	O
them	O
a	O
second	O
thought	O
:	O
computer-based	O
synthesizers	O
,	O
digital	O
mixers	O
,	O
and	O
effects	O
units	O
have	O
become	O
so	O
commonplace	O
that	O
use	O
of	O
digital	O
rather	O
than	O
analog	O
technology	O
to	O
create	O
and	O
record	O
music	B-Application
is	I-Application
the	O
norm	O
,	O
rather	O
than	O
the	O
exception	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
is	O
considerable	O
activity	O
in	O
the	O
field	O
of	O
computer	B-Application
music	I-Application
as	O
researchers	O
continue	O
to	O
pursue	O
new	O
and	O
interesting	O
computer-based	O
synthesis	O
,	O
composition	O
,	O
and	O
performance	O
approaches	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Throughout	O
the	O
world	O
there	O
are	O
many	O
organizations	O
and	O
institutions	O
dedicated	O
to	O
the	O
area	O
of	O
computer	O
and	O
electronic	O
music	O
study	O
and	O
research	O
,	O
including	O
the	O
ICMA	O
(	O
International	O
Computer	B-Application
Music	I-Application
Association	O
)	O
,	O
C4DM	O
(	O
Centre	O
for	O
Digital	O
Music	O
)	O
,	O
IRCAM	O
,	O
GRAME	O
,	O
SEAMUS	O
(	O
Society	O
for	O
Electro	O
Acoustic	O
Music	O
in	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
)	O
,	O
CEC	O
(	O
Canadian	O
Electroacoustic	O
Community	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
a	O
great	O
number	O
of	O
institutions	O
of	O
higher	O
learning	O
around	O
the	O
world	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Cope	O
's	O
best-known	O
program	O
is	O
Emily	B-Application
Howell	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Melomics	O
,	O
a	O
research	O
project	O
from	O
the	O
University	O
of	O
Málaga	O
(	O
Spain	O
)	O
,	O
developed	O
a	O
computer	O
composition	O
cluster	O
named	O
Iamus	B-Operating_System
,	O
which	O
composes	O
complex	O
,	O
multi-instrument	O
pieces	O
for	O
editing	O
and	O
performance	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
its	O
inception	O
,	O
Iamus	B-Operating_System
has	O
composed	O
a	O
full	O
album	O
in	O
2012	O
,	O
appropriately	O
named	O
Iamus	B-Operating_System
,	O
which	O
New	O
Scientist	O
described	O
as	O
"	O
the	O
first	O
major	O
work	O
composed	O
by	O
a	O
computer	O
and	O
performed	O
by	O
a	O
full	O
orchestra	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
group	O
has	O
also	O
developed	O
an	O
API	B-General_Concept
for	O
developers	O
to	O
utilize	O
the	O
technology	O
,	O
and	O
makes	O
its	O
music	O
available	O
on	O
its	O
website	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
term	O
computer-aided	O
,	O
rather	O
than	O
computer-assisted	O
,	O
is	O
used	O
in	O
the	O
same	O
manner	O
as	O
computer-aided	B-Application
design	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
order	O
to	O
achieve	O
credible	O
improvisation	O
in	O
particular	O
style	O
,	O
machine	O
improvisation	O
uses	O
machine	O
learning	O
and	O
pattern	B-Language
matching	I-Language
algorithms	O
to	O
analyze	O
existing	O
musical	O
examples	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Modern	O
methods	O
include	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
lossless	B-Algorithm
data	I-Algorithm
compression	I-Algorithm
for	O
incremental	O
parsing	O
,	O
prediction	O
suffix	B-Architecture
tree	I-Architecture
,	O
string	B-Algorithm
searching	I-Algorithm
and	O
more	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Later	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
factor	B-Application
oracle	I-Application
algorithm	O
(	O
basically	O
a	O
factor	B-Application
oracle	I-Application
is	O
a	O
finite	O
state	O
automaton	O
constructed	O
in	O
linear	O
time	O
and	O
space	O
in	O
an	O
incremental	O
fashion	O
)	O
was	O
adopted	O
for	O
music	O
by	O
Assayag	O
and	O
Dubnov	O
and	O
became	O
the	O
basis	O
for	O
several	O
systems	O
that	O
use	O
stylistic	O
re-injection	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
first	O
implementation	O
of	O
statistical	O
style	O
modeling	O
was	O
the	O
LZify	O
method	O
in	O
Open	O
Music	O
,	O
followed	O
by	O
the	O
Continuator	O
system	O
that	O
implemented	O
interactive	O
machine	O
improvisation	O
that	O
interpreted	O
the	O
LZ	O
incremental	O
parsing	O
in	O
terms	O
of	O
Markov	O
models	O
and	O
used	O
it	O
for	O
real	B-General_Concept
time	I-General_Concept
style	O
modeling	O
developed	O
by	O
François	O
Pachet	O
at	O
Sony	O
CSL	O
Paris	O
in	O
2002	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Matlab	O
implementation	O
of	O
the	O
Factor	B-Application
Oracle	I-Application
machine	O
improvisation	O
can	O
be	O
found	O
as	O
part	O
of	O
Computer	B-General_Concept
Audition	I-General_Concept
toolbox	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
is	O
also	O
an	O
NTCC	O
implementation	O
of	O
the	O
Factor	B-Application
Oracle	I-Application
machine	O
improvisation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
OMax	O
uses	O
OpenMusic	B-Language
and	O
Max	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
One	O
of	O
the	O
problems	O
in	O
modeling	O
audio	O
signals	O
with	O
factor	B-Application
oracle	I-Application
is	O
the	O
symbolization	O
of	O
features	O
from	O
continuous	O
values	O
to	O
a	O
discrete	O
alphabet	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Live	O
coding	O
(	O
sometimes	O
known	O
as	O
'	O
interactive	O
programming	O
 '	O
,	O
'	O
on-the-fly	O
programming	O
 '	O
,	O
'	O
just	O
in	O
time	O
programming	O
 '	O
)	O
is	O
the	O
name	O
given	O
to	O
the	O
process	O
of	O
writing	O
software	O
in	O
real	B-General_Concept
time	I-General_Concept
as	O
part	O
of	O
a	O
performance	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Recently	O
it	O
has	O
been	O
explored	O
as	O
a	O
more	O
rigorous	O
alternative	O
to	O
laptop	O
musicians	O
who	O
,	O
live	B-Application
coders	I-Application
often	O
feel	O
,	O
lack	O
the	O
charisma	O
and	O
pizzazz	O
of	O
musicians	O
performing	O
live	O
.	O
</s>
