<s>
Computer	B-Architecture
hardware	I-Architecture
includes	O
the	O
physical	O
parts	O
of	O
a	O
computer	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
case	B-General_Concept
,	O
central	B-General_Concept
processing	I-General_Concept
unit	I-General_Concept
(	O
CPU	B-General_Concept
)	O
,	O
random	B-Architecture
access	I-Architecture
memory	I-Architecture
(	O
RAM	B-Architecture
)	O
,	O
monitor	B-Device
,	O
mouse	B-Device
,	O
keyboard	B-Device
,	O
computer	B-General_Concept
data	I-General_Concept
storage	I-General_Concept
,	O
graphics	B-General_Concept
card	I-General_Concept
,	O
sound	B-Device
card	I-Device
,	O
speakers	B-Device
and	O
motherboard	B-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
By	O
contrast	O
,	O
software	O
is	O
the	O
set	O
of	O
instructions	O
that	O
can	O
be	O
stored	O
and	O
run	O
by	O
hardware	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Hardware	B-Architecture
is	O
so-termed	O
because	O
it	O
is	O
"	O
hard	O
"	O
or	O
rigid	O
with	O
respect	O
to	O
changes	O
,	O
whereas	O
software	O
is	O
"	O
soft	O
"	O
because	O
it	O
is	O
easy	O
to	O
change	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Hardware	B-Architecture
is	O
typically	O
directed	O
by	O
the	O
software	O
to	O
execute	O
any	O
command	O
or	O
instruction	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
combination	O
of	O
hardware	B-Architecture
and	O
software	O
forms	O
a	O
usable	O
computing	O
system	O
,	O
although	O
other	O
systems	O
exist	O
with	O
only	O
hardware	B-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
template	O
for	O
all	O
modern	O
computers	O
is	O
the	O
Von	B-Architecture
Neumann	I-Architecture
architecture	I-Architecture
,	O
detailed	O
in	O
a	O
1945	O
paper	O
by	O
Hungarian	O
mathematician	O
John	O
von	O
Neumann	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
describes	O
a	O
design	O
architecture	O
for	O
an	O
electronic	O
digital	O
computer	O
with	O
subdivisions	O
of	O
a	O
processing	B-General_Concept
unit	I-General_Concept
consisting	O
of	O
an	O
arithmetic	B-General_Concept
logic	I-General_Concept
unit	I-General_Concept
and	O
processor	B-General_Concept
registers	I-General_Concept
,	O
a	O
control	B-General_Concept
unit	I-General_Concept
containing	O
an	O
instruction	B-General_Concept
register	I-General_Concept
and	O
program	B-General_Concept
counter	I-General_Concept
,	O
a	O
memory	B-General_Concept
to	O
store	O
both	O
data	O
and	O
instructions	O
,	O
external	O
mass	B-Device
storage	I-Device
,	O
and	O
input	B-General_Concept
and	I-General_Concept
output	I-General_Concept
mechanisms	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
meaning	O
of	O
the	O
term	O
has	O
evolved	O
to	O
mean	O
a	O
stored-program	O
computer	O
in	O
which	O
an	O
instruction	B-General_Concept
fetch	O
and	O
a	O
data	O
operation	O
cannot	O
occur	O
at	O
the	O
same	O
time	O
because	O
they	O
share	O
a	O
common	O
bus	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
personal	B-Device
computer	I-Device
is	O
one	O
of	O
the	O
most	O
common	O
types	O
of	O
computer	O
due	O
to	O
its	O
versatility	O
and	O
relatively	O
low	O
price	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Desktop	O
personal	B-Device
computers	I-Device
have	O
a	O
monitor	B-Device
,	O
a	O
keyboard	B-Device
,	O
a	O
mouse	B-Device
,	O
and	O
a	O
computer	B-General_Concept
case	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
computer	B-General_Concept
case	I-General_Concept
holds	O
the	O
motherboard	B-Device
,	O
fixed	O
or	O
removable	O
disk	O
drives	O
for	O
data	O
storage	O
,	O
the	O
power	O
supply	O
,	O
and	O
may	O
contain	O
other	O
peripheral	O
devices	O
such	O
as	O
modems	B-Application
or	O
network	O
interfaces	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
models	O
of	O
desktop	O
computers	O
integrated	O
the	O
monitor	B-Device
and	O
keyboard	B-Device
into	O
the	O
same	O
case	B-General_Concept
as	O
the	O
processor	O
and	O
power	O
supply	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Laptops	B-Device
are	O
designed	O
for	O
portability	O
but	O
operate	O
similarly	O
to	O
desktop	O
PCs	B-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Laptops	B-Device
contain	O
the	O
keyboard	B-Device
,	O
display	O
,	O
and	O
processor	O
in	O
one	O
case	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
monitor	B-Device
in	O
the	O
folding	O
upper	O
cover	O
of	O
the	O
case	B-General_Concept
can	O
be	O
closed	O
for	O
transportation	O
,	O
to	O
protect	O
the	O
screen	O
and	O
keyboard	B-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Instead	O
of	O
a	O
mouse	B-Device
,	O
laptops	B-Device
may	O
have	O
a	O
touchpad	B-Application
or	O
pointing	B-Device
stick	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Tablets	B-Device
are	O
portable	O
computers	O
that	O
use	O
a	O
touch	B-Device
screen	I-Device
as	O
the	O
primary	O
input	B-Device
device	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Tablets	B-Device
generally	O
weigh	O
less	O
and	O
are	O
smaller	O
than	O
laptops	B-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
tablets	B-Device
include	O
fold-out	O
keyboards	B-Device
,	O
or	O
offer	O
connections	O
to	O
separate	O
external	O
keyboards	B-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
models	O
of	O
laptop	B-Device
computers	I-Device
have	O
a	O
detachable	O
keyboard	B-Device
,	O
which	O
allows	O
the	O
system	O
to	O
be	O
configured	O
as	O
a	O
touch-screen	B-Device
tablet	B-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
They	O
are	O
sometimes	O
called	O
"	O
2-in-1	O
detachable	O
laptops	B-Device
"	O
or	O
"	O
tablet-laptop	O
hybrids	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
computer	B-General_Concept
case	I-General_Concept
encloses	O
most	O
of	O
the	O
components	O
of	O
the	O
system	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
provides	O
mechanical	O
support	O
and	O
protection	O
for	O
internal	O
elements	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
motherboard	B-Device
,	O
disk	O
drives	O
,	O
and	O
power	O
supplies	O
,	O
and	O
controls	O
and	O
directs	O
the	O
flow	O
of	O
cooling	O
air	O
over	O
internal	O
components	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
case	B-General_Concept
is	O
also	O
part	O
of	O
the	O
system	O
to	O
control	O
electromagnetic	O
interference	O
radiated	O
by	O
the	O
computer	O
and	O
protects	O
internal	O
parts	O
from	O
electrostatic	O
discharge	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Large	O
tower	B-General_Concept
cases	I-General_Concept
provide	O
space	O
for	O
multiple	O
disk	O
drives	O
or	O
other	O
peripherals	O
and	O
usually	O
stand	O
on	O
the	O
floor	O
,	O
while	O
desktop	B-General_Concept
cases	I-General_Concept
provide	O
less	O
expansion	O
room	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
All-in-one	O
style	O
designs	O
include	O
a	O
video	O
display	O
built	O
into	O
the	O
same	O
case	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Portable	O
and	O
laptop	B-Device
computers	I-Device
require	O
cases	O
that	O
provide	O
impact	O
protection	O
for	O
the	O
unit	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Hobbyists	O
may	O
decorate	O
the	O
cases	O
with	O
colored	O
lights	O
,	O
paint	O
,	O
or	O
other	O
features	O
,	O
in	O
an	O
activity	O
called	O
case	B-Architecture
modding	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
Laptops	B-Device
can	O
run	O
on	O
built-in	O
rechargeable	O
battery	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
PSU	O
typically	O
uses	O
a	O
switched-mode	O
power	O
supply	O
(	O
SMPS	O
)	O
,	O
with	O
power	O
MOSFETs	B-Architecture
(	O
power	O
metal	B-Architecture
–	I-Architecture
oxide	I-Architecture
–	I-Architecture
semiconductor	I-Architecture
field-effect	I-Architecture
transistors	I-Architecture
)	O
used	O
in	O
the	O
converters	O
and	O
regulator	O
circuits	O
of	O
the	O
SMPS	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
motherboard	B-Device
is	O
the	O
main	O
component	O
of	O
a	O
computer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
a	O
board	O
with	O
integrated	O
circuitry	O
that	O
connects	O
the	O
other	O
parts	O
of	O
the	O
computer	O
including	O
the	O
CPU	B-General_Concept
,	O
the	O
RAM	B-Architecture
,	O
the	O
disk	O
drives	O
(	O
CD	B-Device
,	O
DVD	O
,	O
hard	B-Device
disk	I-Device
,	O
or	O
any	O
others	O
)	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
any	O
peripherals	O
connected	O
via	O
the	O
ports	O
or	O
the	O
expansion	B-Device
slots	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
integrated	O
circuit	O
(	O
IC	O
)	O
chips	O
in	O
a	O
computer	O
typically	O
contain	O
billions	O
of	O
tiny	O
metal	B-Architecture
–	I-Architecture
oxide	I-Architecture
–	I-Architecture
semiconductor	I-Architecture
field-effect	I-Architecture
transistors	I-Architecture
(	O
MOSFETs	B-Architecture
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Components	O
directly	O
attached	O
to	O
or	O
to	O
part	O
of	O
the	O
motherboard	B-Device
include	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
CPU	B-General_Concept
(	O
central	B-General_Concept
processing	I-General_Concept
unit	I-General_Concept
)	O
,	O
which	O
performs	O
most	O
of	O
the	O
calculations	O
which	O
enable	O
a	O
computer	O
to	O
function	O
,	O
and	O
is	O
referred	O
to	O
as	O
the	O
brain	O
of	O
the	O
computer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
takes	O
program	O
instructions	O
from	O
random-access	B-Architecture
memory	I-Architecture
(	O
RAM	B-Architecture
)	O
,	O
interprets	O
and	O
processes	O
them	O
and	O
then	O
sends	O
back	O
results	O
so	O
that	O
the	O
relevant	O
components	O
can	O
carry	O
out	O
the	O
instructions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
CPU	B-General_Concept
is	O
a	O
microprocessor	B-Architecture
,	O
which	O
is	O
fabricated	B-Architecture
on	O
a	O
metal	B-Architecture
–	I-Architecture
oxide	I-Architecture
–	I-Architecture
semiconductor	I-Architecture
(	O
MOS	O
)	O
integrated	O
circuit	O
(	O
IC	O
)	O
chip	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
usually	O
cooled	B-General_Concept
by	O
a	O
heatsink	O
and	O
fan	O
,	O
or	O
water-cooling	O
system	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
newer	O
CPUs	B-Device
include	O
an	O
on-die	O
graphics	B-Architecture
processing	I-Architecture
unit	I-Architecture
(	O
GPU	B-Architecture
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
clock	O
speed	O
of	O
the	O
CPU	B-General_Concept
governs	O
how	O
fast	O
it	O
executes	O
instructions	O
and	O
is	O
measured	O
in	O
GHz	O
;	O
typical	O
values	O
lie	O
between	O
1GHz	O
and	O
5GHz	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
modern	O
computers	O
have	O
the	O
option	O
to	O
overclock	O
the	O
CPU	B-General_Concept
which	O
enhances	O
performance	O
at	O
the	O
expense	O
of	O
greater	O
thermal	O
output	B-Device
and	O
thus	O
a	O
need	O
for	O
improved	O
cooling	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
chipset	B-Device
,	O
which	O
includes	O
the	O
north	B-Device
bridge	I-Device
,	O
mediates	O
communication	O
between	O
the	O
CPU	B-General_Concept
and	O
the	O
other	O
components	O
of	O
the	O
system	O
,	O
including	O
main	O
memory	B-General_Concept
;	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
south	B-Device
bridge	I-Device
,	O
which	O
is	O
connected	O
to	O
the	O
north	B-Device
bridge	I-Device
,	O
and	O
supports	O
auxiliary	O
interfaces	O
and	O
buses	B-General_Concept
;	O
and	O
,	O
finally	O
,	O
a	O
Super	B-Device
I/O	I-Device
chip	O
,	O
connected	O
through	O
the	O
south	B-Device
bridge	I-Device
,	O
which	O
supports	O
the	O
slowest	O
and	O
most	O
legacy	O
components	O
like	O
serial	B-Protocol
ports	I-Protocol
,	O
hardware	B-Application
monitoring	I-Application
and	O
fan	B-Device
control	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Random-access	B-Architecture
memory	I-Architecture
(	O
RAM	B-Architecture
)	O
,	O
which	O
stores	O
the	O
code	O
and	O
data	O
that	O
are	O
being	O
actively	O
accessed	O
by	O
the	O
CPU	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
when	O
a	O
web	O
browser	O
is	O
opened	O
on	O
the	O
computer	O
it	O
takes	O
up	O
memory	B-General_Concept
;	O
this	O
is	O
stored	O
in	O
the	O
RAM	B-Architecture
until	O
the	O
web	O
browser	O
is	O
closed	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
is	O
typically	O
a	O
type	O
of	O
dynamic	O
RAM	B-Architecture
(	O
DRAM	O
)	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
synchronous	O
DRAM	O
(	O
SDRAM	O
)	O
,	O
where	O
MOS	B-Architecture
memory	I-Architecture
chips	O
store	O
data	O
on	O
memory	B-Algorithm
cells	I-Algorithm
consisting	O
of	O
MOSFETs	B-Architecture
and	O
MOS	O
capacitors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
RAM	B-Architecture
usually	O
comes	O
on	O
dual	B-General_Concept
in-line	I-General_Concept
memory	I-General_Concept
modules	I-General_Concept
(	O
DIMMs	B-General_Concept
)	O
in	O
the	O
sizes	O
of	O
2GB	O
,	O
4GB	O
,	O
and	O
8GB	O
,	O
but	O
can	O
be	O
much	O
larger	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Read-only	B-Device
memory	I-Device
(	O
ROM	B-Device
)	O
,	O
which	O
stores	O
the	O
BIOS	B-Operating_System
that	O
runs	O
when	O
the	O
computer	O
is	O
powered	O
on	O
or	O
otherwise	O
begins	O
execution	O
,	O
a	O
process	O
known	O
as	O
Bootstrapping	O
,	O
or	O
"	O
booting	B-Operating_System
"	O
or	O
"	O
booting	B-Operating_System
up	I-Operating_System
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
ROM	B-Device
is	O
typically	O
a	O
nonvolatile	B-Device
BIOS	I-Device
memory	I-Device
chip	O
,	O
which	O
stores	O
data	O
on	O
floating-gate	B-Algorithm
MOSFET	I-Algorithm
memory	B-Algorithm
cells	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
BIOS	B-Operating_System
(	O
Basic	B-Operating_System
Input	I-Operating_System
Output	I-Operating_System
System	I-Operating_System
)	O
includes	O
boot	B-Operating_System
firmware	B-Application
and	O
power	O
management	O
firmware	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Newer	O
motherboards	B-Device
use	O
Unified	B-Architecture
Extensible	I-Architecture
Firmware	I-Architecture
Interface	I-Architecture
(	O
UEFI	B-Architecture
)	O
instead	O
of	O
BIOS	B-Operating_System
.	O
</s>
<s>
Buses	B-General_Concept
that	O
connect	O
the	O
CPU	B-General_Concept
to	O
various	O
internal	O
components	O
and	O
to	O
expand	O
cards	O
for	O
graphics	O
and	O
sound	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
CMOS	B-Device
(	O
complementary	O
MOS	O
)	O
battery	O
,	O
which	O
powers	O
the	O
CMOS	B-Device
memory	I-Device
for	O
date	O
and	O
time	O
in	O
the	O
BIOS	B-Operating_System
chip	I-Operating_System
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
battery	O
is	O
generally	O
a	O
watch	B-Algorithm
battery	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
video	B-Device
card	I-Device
(	O
also	O
known	O
as	O
the	O
graphics	B-General_Concept
card	I-General_Concept
)	O
,	O
which	O
processes	O
computer	O
graphics	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
More	O
powerful	O
graphics	B-Device
cards	I-Device
are	O
better	O
suited	O
to	O
handle	O
strenuous	O
tasks	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
playing	O
intensive	O
video	O
games	O
or	O
running	O
computer	O
graphics	O
software	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
video	B-Device
card	I-Device
contains	O
a	O
graphics	B-Architecture
processing	I-Architecture
unit	I-Architecture
(	O
GPU	B-Architecture
)	O
and	O
video	O
memory	B-General_Concept
(	O
typically	O
a	O
type	O
of	O
SDRAM	O
)	O
,	O
both	O
fabricated	B-Architecture
on	O
MOS	O
integrated	O
circuit	O
(	O
MOS	O
IC	O
)	O
chips	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Power	O
MOSFETs	B-Architecture
make	O
up	O
the	O
voltage	O
regulator	O
module	O
(	O
VRM	O
)	O
,	O
which	O
controls	O
how	O
much	O
voltage	O
other	O
hardware	B-Architecture
components	O
receive	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
An	O
expansion	B-Device
card	I-Device
in	O
computing	O
is	O
a	O
printed	O
circuit	O
board	O
that	O
can	O
be	O
inserted	O
into	O
an	O
expansion	B-Device
slot	I-Device
of	O
a	O
computer	B-Device
motherboard	I-Device
or	O
backplane	O
to	O
add	O
functionality	O
to	O
a	O
computer	O
system	O
via	O
the	O
expansion	B-Device
bus	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Expansion	B-Device
cards	I-Device
can	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
obtain	O
or	O
expand	O
on	O
features	O
not	O
offered	O
by	O
the	O
motherboard	B-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
storage	O
device	O
is	O
any	O
computing	B-Architecture
hardware	I-Architecture
and	O
digital	O
media	O
that	O
is	O
used	O
for	O
storing	O
,	O
porting	O
and	O
extracting	O
data	O
files	O
and	O
objects	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Dedicated	O
storage	O
devices	O
include	O
RAIDs	B-Architecture
and	O
tape	B-Device
libraries	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Hard	B-Device
disk	I-Device
drives	I-Device
(	O
HDDs	O
)	O
are	O
found	O
in	O
virtually	O
all	O
older	O
computers	O
,	O
due	O
to	O
their	O
high	O
capacity	O
and	O
low	O
cost	O
,	O
but	O
solid-state	B-Device
drives	I-Device
(	O
SSDs	B-Device
)	O
are	O
faster	O
and	O
more	O
power	O
efficient	O
,	O
although	O
currently	O
more	O
expensive	O
than	O
hard	B-Device
drives	I-Device
in	O
terms	O
of	O
dollar	O
per	O
gigabyte	O
,	O
so	O
are	O
often	O
found	O
in	O
personal	B-Device
computers	I-Device
built	O
post-2007	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
SSDs	B-Device
use	O
flash	B-Device
memory	I-Device
,	O
which	O
stores	O
data	O
on	O
MOS	B-Architecture
memory	I-Architecture
chips	O
consisting	O
of	O
floating-gate	B-Algorithm
MOSFET	I-Algorithm
memory	B-Algorithm
cells	I-Algorithm
.	O
</s>
<s>
Some	O
systems	O
may	O
use	O
a	O
disk	B-Device
array	I-Device
controller	I-Device
for	O
greater	O
performance	O
or	O
reliability	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
To	O
transfer	O
data	O
between	O
computers	O
,	O
an	O
external	O
flash	B-Device
memory	I-Device
device	O
(	O
such	O
as	O
a	O
memory	B-Device
card	I-Device
or	O
USB	B-Protocol
flash	O
drive	O
)	O
or	O
optical	B-Device
disc	I-Device
(	O
such	O
as	O
a	O
CD-ROM	B-Device
,	O
DVD-ROM	O
or	O
BD-ROM	O
)	O
may	O
be	O
used	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Their	O
usefulness	O
depends	O
on	O
being	O
readable	O
by	O
other	O
systems	O
;	O
the	O
majority	O
of	O
machines	O
have	O
an	O
optical	B-Device
disk	I-Device
drive	O
(	O
ODD	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
virtually	O
all	O
have	O
at	O
least	O
one	O
Universal	B-Protocol
Serial	I-Protocol
Bus	I-Protocol
(	O
USB	B-Protocol
)	O
port	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Additionally	O
,	O
USB	B-Protocol
sticks	O
are	O
typically	O
pre-formatted	O
with	O
the	O
FAT32	B-Application
file	O
system	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
widely	O
supported	O
across	O
operating	B-General_Concept
systems	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Input	B-General_Concept
and	I-General_Concept
output	I-General_Concept
devices	O
are	O
typically	O
housed	O
externally	O
to	O
the	O
main	O
computer	B-General_Concept
chassis	I-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Input	B-Device
devices	I-Device
allow	O
the	O
user	O
to	O
enter	O
information	O
into	O
the	O
system	O
,	O
or	O
control	O
its	O
operation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Most	O
personal	B-Device
computers	I-Device
have	O
a	O
mouse	B-Device
and	O
keyboard	B-Device
,	O
but	O
laptop	B-Device
systems	O
typically	O
use	O
a	O
touchpad	B-Application
instead	O
of	O
a	O
mouse	B-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Other	O
input	B-Device
devices	I-Device
include	O
webcams	B-Protocol
,	O
microphones	B-Application
,	O
joysticks	B-Device
,	O
and	O
image	B-Application
scanners	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Output	B-Device
devices	I-Device
are	O
designed	O
around	O
the	O
senses	O
of	O
human	O
beings	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
monitors	B-Device
display	O
text	O
that	O
can	O
be	O
read	O
,	O
speakers	B-Device
produce	O
sound	O
that	O
can	O
be	O
heard	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
mainframe	B-Architecture
computer	I-Architecture
is	O
a	O
much	O
larger	O
computer	O
that	O
typically	O
fills	O
a	O
room	O
and	O
may	O
cost	O
many	O
hundreds	O
or	O
thousands	O
of	O
times	O
as	O
much	O
as	O
a	O
personal	B-Device
computer	I-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
minicomputer	O
,	O
or	O
colloquially	O
mini	O
,	O
is	O
a	O
class	O
of	O
smaller	O
computers	O
that	O
was	O
developed	O
in	O
the	O
mid-1960s	O
and	O
sold	O
for	O
much	O
less	O
than	O
mainframe	B-Architecture
and	O
mid-size	O
computers	O
from	O
IBM	O
and	O
its	O
direct	O
competitors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
supercomputer	B-Architecture
is	O
superficially	O
similar	O
to	O
a	O
mainframe	B-Architecture
but	O
is	O
instead	O
intended	O
for	O
extremely	O
demanding	O
computational	O
tasks	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
,	O
the	O
fastest	B-Operating_System
supercomputer	I-Operating_System
on	O
the	O
TOP500	B-Operating_System
supercomputer	B-Architecture
list	O
is	O
Fugaku	B-Device
,	O
in	O
Japan	O
,	O
with	O
a	O
LINPACK	B-Device
benchmark	I-Device
score	O
of	O
415	O
PFLOPS	O
,	O
superseding	O
the	O
second	O
fastest	O
,	O
Summit	B-Device
,	O
in	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
,	O
by	O
around	O
294	O
PFLOPS	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
term	O
supercomputer	B-Architecture
does	O
not	O
refer	O
to	O
a	O
specific	O
technology	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
mid-2011	O
,	O
the	O
fastest	B-Operating_System
supercomputers	I-Operating_System
boasted	O
speeds	O
exceeding	O
one	O
petaflop	O
,	O
or	O
1	O
quadrillion	O
(	O
10^15	O
or	O
1,000	O
trillion	O
)	O
floating-point	O
operations	O
per	O
second	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Supercomputers	B-Architecture
are	O
fast	O
but	O
extremely	O
costly	O
,	O
so	O
they	O
are	O
generally	O
used	O
by	O
large	O
organizations	O
to	O
execute	O
computationally	O
demanding	O
tasks	O
involving	O
large	O
data	O
sets	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Supercomputers	B-Architecture
typically	O
run	O
military	O
and	O
scientific	O
applications	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
large	O
banks	O
employ	O
supercomputers	B-Architecture
to	O
calculate	O
the	O
risks	O
and	O
returns	O
of	O
various	O
investment	O
strategies	O
,	O
and	O
healthcare	O
organizations	O
use	O
them	O
to	O
analyze	O
giant	O
databases	O
of	O
patient	O
data	O
to	O
determine	O
optimal	O
treatments	O
for	O
various	O
diseases	O
and	O
problems	O
incurring	O
to	O
the	O
country	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
When	O
using	O
computer	B-Architecture
hardware	I-Architecture
,	O
an	O
upgrade	B-General_Concept
means	O
adding	O
new	O
or	O
additional	O
hardware	B-Architecture
to	O
a	O
computer	O
that	O
improves	O
its	O
performance	O
,	O
increases	O
its	O
capacity	O
,	O
or	O
adds	O
new	O
features	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
a	O
user	O
could	O
perform	O
a	O
hardware	B-Architecture
upgrade	B-General_Concept
to	O
replace	O
the	O
hard	B-Device
drive	I-Device
with	O
a	O
faster	O
one	O
or	O
a	O
Solid	B-Device
State	I-Device
Drive	I-Device
(	O
SSD	B-Device
)	O
to	O
get	O
a	O
boost	O
in	O
performance	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
user	O
may	O
also	O
install	O
more	O
Random	B-Architecture
Access	I-Architecture
Memory	I-Architecture
(	O
RAM	B-Architecture
)	O
so	O
the	O
computer	O
can	O
store	O
additional	O
temporary	O
data	O
,	O
or	O
retrieve	O
such	O
data	O
at	O
a	O
faster	O
rate	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
user	O
may	O
add	O
a	O
USB	B-Protocol
3.0	O
expansion	B-Device
card	I-Device
to	O
fully	O
use	O
USB	B-Protocol
3.0	O
devices	O
,	O
or	O
could	O
upgrade	B-General_Concept
the	O
Graphics	B-Architecture
Processing	I-Architecture
Unit	I-Architecture
(	O
GPU	B-Architecture
)	O
for	O
cleaner	O
,	O
more	O
advanced	O
graphics	O
,	O
or	O
more	O
monitors	B-Device
.	O
</s>
<s>
Performing	O
such	O
hardware	B-Architecture
upgrades	B-General_Concept
may	O
be	O
necessary	O
for	O
aged	O
computers	O
to	O
meet	O
a	O
new	O
,	O
or	O
updated	O
program	O
's	O
system	O
requirements	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
large	O
organizations	O
,	O
hardware	B-Architecture
upgrades	B-General_Concept
are	O
handled	O
by	O
administrators	O
who	O
are	O
also	O
in	O
charge	O
of	O
keeping	O
networks	B-Architecture
running	O
smoothly	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
They	O
replace	O
network	O
devices	O
like	O
servers	B-Application
,	O
routers	B-Protocol
and	O
storage	O
devices	O
based	O
on	O
new	O
demands	O
and	O
capacities	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Because	O
computer	B-Architecture
parts	I-Architecture
contain	O
hazardous	O
materials	O
,	O
there	O
is	O
a	O
growing	O
movement	O
to	O
recycle	O
old	O
and	O
outdated	O
parts	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Computer	B-Architecture
hardware	I-Architecture
contain	O
dangerous	O
chemicals	O
such	O
as	O
lead	O
,	O
mercury	O
,	O
nickel	O
,	O
and	O
cadmium	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Making	O
hardware	B-Architecture
requires	O
energy	O
,	O
and	O
recycling	O
parts	O
will	O
reduce	O
air	O
pollution	O
,	O
water	O
pollution	O
,	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
greenhouse	O
gas	O
emissions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
For	O
example	O
,	O
the	O
RAM	B-Architecture
,	O
DVD	O
drive	O
,	O
the	O
graphics	B-General_Concept
card	I-General_Concept
,	O
hard	B-Device
drive	I-Device
or	O
SSD	B-Device
,	O
and	O
other	O
similar	O
removable	O
parts	O
can	O
be	O
reused	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
materials	O
used	O
in	O
computer	B-Architecture
hardware	I-Architecture
can	O
be	O
recovered	O
by	O
recycling	O
for	O
use	O
in	O
future	O
production	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Reuse	O
of	O
tin	B-Protocol
,	O
silicon	O
,	O
iron	O
,	O
aluminium	O
,	O
and	O
a	O
variety	O
of	O
plastics	O
that	O
are	O
present	O
in	O
bulk	O
in	O
computers	O
or	O
other	O
electronics	O
can	O
reduce	O
the	O
costs	O
of	O
constructing	O
new	O
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Components	O
frequently	O
contain	O
copper	O
,	O
gold	O
,	O
tantalum	O
,	O
silver	O
,	O
platinum	B-Operating_System
,	O
palladium	O
,	O
and	O
lead	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
other	O
valuable	O
materials	O
suitable	O
for	O
reclamation	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
central	B-General_Concept
processing	I-General_Concept
unit	I-General_Concept
contains	O
many	O
toxic	O
materials	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
contains	O
lead	O
and	O
chromium	B-Language
in	O
the	O
metal	O
plates	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
circuit	O
boards	O
in	O
a	O
computer	O
contain	O
mercury	O
,	O
and	O
chromium	B-Language
.	O
</s>
<s>
Computer	B-Device
monitors	I-Device
,	O
mice	B-Device
,	O
and	O
keyboards	B-Device
all	O
have	O
a	O
similar	O
way	O
of	O
being	O
recycled	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Computer	B-Architecture
components	I-Architecture
contain	O
many	O
toxic	O
substances	O
,	O
like	O
dioxins	O
,	O
polychlorinated	O
biphenyls	O
(	O
PCBs	O
)	O
,	O
cadmium	O
,	O
chromium	B-Language
,	O
radioactive	O
isotopes	O
and	O
mercury	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Circuit	O
boards	O
contain	O
considerable	O
quantities	O
of	O
lead-tin	O
solders	O
that	O
are	O
more	O
likely	O
to	O
leach	O
into	O
groundwater	O
or	O
create	O
air	O
pollution	O
due	O
to	O
incineration	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Recycling	O
of	O
computer	B-Architecture
hardware	I-Architecture
is	O
considered	O
environmentally	O
friendly	O
because	O
it	O
prevents	O
hazardous	O
waste	O
,	O
including	O
heavy	O
metals	O
and	O
carcinogens	O
,	O
from	O
entering	O
the	O
atmosphere	O
,	O
landfill	O
or	O
waterways	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
computer	B-Architecture
hardware	I-Architecture
contain	O
a	O
wide	O
number	O
of	O
metals	O
inside	O
,	O
the	O
United	O
States	O
Environmental	O
Protection	O
Agency	O
(	O
EPA	O
)	O
encourages	O
the	O
collection	O
and	O
recycling	O
of	O
computer	B-Architecture
hardware	I-Architecture
.	O
</s>
<s>
"	O
E-cycling	O
"	O
,	O
the	O
recycling	O
of	O
computer	B-Architecture
hardware	I-Architecture
,	O
refers	O
to	O
the	O
donation	O
,	O
reuse	O
,	O
shredding	O
and	O
general	O
collection	O
of	O
used	O
electronics	O
.	O
</s>
