<s>
Computer-assisted	B-Application
language	I-Application
learning	I-Application
(	O
CALL	O
)	O
,	O
British	O
,	O
or	O
Computer-Aided	O
Instruction	O
(	O
CAI	O
)	O
/Computer	O
-Aided	O
Language	O
Instruction	O
(	O
CALI	O
)	O
,	O
American	O
,	O
is	O
briefly	O
defined	O
in	O
a	O
seminal	O
work	O
by	O
Levy	O
(	O
1997	O
:	O
p.1	O
)	O
as	O
"	O
the	O
search	O
for	O
and	O
study	O
of	O
applications	O
of	O
the	O
computer	O
in	O
language	O
teaching	O
and	O
learning	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
CALL	O
embraces	O
a	O
wide	O
range	O
of	O
information	B-General_Concept
and	I-General_Concept
communications	I-General_Concept
technology	I-General_Concept
applications	O
and	O
approaches	O
to	O
teaching	O
and	O
learning	O
foreign	O
languages	O
,	O
from	O
the	O
"	O
traditional	O
"	O
drill-and-practice	O
programs	O
that	O
characterised	O
CALL	O
in	O
the	O
1960s	O
and	O
1970s	O
to	O
more	O
recent	O
manifestations	O
of	O
CALL	O
,	O
e.g.	O
</s>
<s>
as	O
used	O
in	O
a	O
virtual	B-Protocol
learning	I-Protocol
environment	I-Protocol
and	O
Web-based	O
distance	O
learning	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
also	O
extends	O
to	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
corpora	O
and	O
concordancers	O
,	O
interactive	B-Application
whiteboards	I-Application
,	O
computer-mediated	O
communication	O
(	O
CMC	O
)	O
,	O
language	O
learning	O
in	O
virtual	B-Application
worlds	I-Application
,	O
and	O
mobile-assisted	O
language	O
learning	O
(	O
MALL	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
advent	B-Application
of	O
the	O
microcomputer	O
in	O
the	O
late	O
1970s	O
brought	O
computing	O
within	O
the	O
range	O
of	O
a	O
wider	O
audience	O
,	O
resulting	O
in	O
a	O
boom	O
in	O
the	O
development	O
of	O
CALL	O
programs	O
and	O
a	O
flurry	O
of	O
publications	O
of	O
books	O
on	O
CALL	O
in	O
the	O
early	O
1980s	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
These	O
included	O
gap-filling	O
and	O
Cloze	O
programs	O
,	O
multiple-choice	O
programs	O
,	O
free-format	O
(	O
text-entry	O
)	O
programs	O
,	O
adventures	B-Application
and	O
simulations	O
,	O
action	O
mazes	O
,	O
sentence-reordering	O
programs	O
,	O
exploratory	O
programs	O
—	O
and	O
"	O
total	O
Cloze	O
"	O
,	O
a	O
type	O
of	O
program	O
in	O
which	O
the	O
learner	O
has	O
to	O
reconstruct	O
a	O
whole	O
text	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
the	O
1990s	O
,	O
it	O
has	O
become	O
increasingly	O
difficult	O
to	O
categorise	O
CALL	O
as	O
it	O
now	O
extends	O
to	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
blogs	O
,	O
wikis	B-Protocol
,	O
social	O
networking	O
,	O
podcasting	O
,	O
Web	O
2.0	O
applications	O
,	O
language	O
learning	O
in	O
virtual	B-Application
worlds	I-Application
and	O
interactive	B-Application
whiteboards	I-Application
(	O
Davies	O
et	O
al	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
this	O
phase	O
,	O
computers	O
provided	O
context	O
for	O
students	O
to	O
use	O
the	O
language	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
asking	O
for	O
directions	O
to	O
a	O
place	O
,	O
and	O
programs	O
not	O
designed	O
for	O
language	O
learning	O
such	O
as	O
Sim	O
City	O
,	O
Sleuth	O
and	O
Where	B-Device
in	I-Device
the	I-Device
World	I-Device
is	I-Device
Carmen	I-Device
Sandiego	I-Device
?	I-Device
</s>
<s>
This	O
has	O
led	O
to	O
the	O
development	O
of	O
a	O
number	O
of	O
applications	O
known	O
as	O
spaced	O
repetition	O
systems	O
(	O
SRS	O
)	O
,	O
including	O
the	O
generic	O
Anki	B-Application
or	O
SuperMemo	B-Application
package	O
and	O
programs	O
such	O
as	O
BYKI	O
and	O
phase-6	O
,	O
which	O
have	O
been	O
designed	O
specifically	O
for	O
learners	O
of	O
foreign	O
languages	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
emergence	O
of	O
the	O
World	O
Wide	O
Web	O
(	O
now	O
known	O
simply	O
as	O
"	O
the	O
Web	O
"	O
)	O
in	O
the	O
early	O
1990s	O
marked	O
a	O
significant	O
change	O
in	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
communications	B-General_Concept
technology	I-General_Concept
for	O
all	O
computer	O
users	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Email	O
and	O
other	O
forms	O
of	O
electronic	O
communication	O
had	O
been	O
in	O
existence	O
for	O
many	O
years	O
,	O
but	O
the	O
launch	O
of	O
Mosaic	B-Application
,	O
the	O
first	O
graphical	O
Web	B-Application
browser	I-Application
,	O
in	O
1993	O
brought	O
about	O
a	O
radical	O
change	O
in	O
the	O
ways	O
in	O
which	O
we	O
communicate	O
electronically	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
in	O
a	O
so-called	O
"	O
stack	O
"	O
as	O
implemented	O
in	O
the	O
HyperCard	B-Application
program	O
on	O
Apple	O
Mac	O
computers	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
launch	O
of	O
the	O
(	O
free	O
)	O
Hot	B-Application
Potatoes	I-Application
(	O
Holmes	O
&	O
Arneil	O
)	O
authoring	O
tool	O
,	O
which	O
was	O
first	O
demonstrated	O
publicly	O
at	O
the	O
EUROCALL	O
1998	O
conference	O
,	O
made	O
it	O
possible	O
for	O
language	O
teachers	O
to	O
create	O
their	O
own	O
online	O
interactive	O
exercises	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Virtual	B-Application
worlds	I-Application
date	O
back	O
to	O
the	O
adventure	B-Application
games	O
and	O
simulations	O
of	O
the	O
1970s	O
,	O
for	O
example	O
Colossal	B-Application
Cave	I-Application
Adventure	I-Application
,	O
a	O
text-only	O
simulation	O
in	O
which	O
the	O
user	O
communicated	O
with	O
the	O
computer	O
by	O
typing	O
commands	O
at	O
the	O
keyboard	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
early	O
adventure	B-Application
games	O
and	O
simulations	O
led	O
on	O
to	O
multi-user	O
variants	O
,	O
which	O
were	O
known	O
as	O
MUDs	B-Application
(	O
Multi-user	B-Application
domains	I-Application
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Like	O
their	O
predecessors	O
,	O
MUDs	B-Application
were	O
text-only	O
,	O
with	O
the	O
difference	O
that	O
they	O
were	O
available	O
to	O
a	O
wider	O
online	O
audience	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
MUDs	B-Application
then	O
led	O
on	O
to	O
MOOs	B-Application
(	O
Multi-user	B-Application
domains	I-Application
object-oriented	O
)	O
,	O
which	O
language	O
teachers	O
were	O
able	O
to	O
exploit	O
for	O
teaching	O
foreign	O
languages	O
and	O
intercultural	O
understanding	O
:	O
see	O
Donaldson	O
&	O
Kötter	O
(	O
1999	O
)	O
and	O
(	O
Shield	O
2003	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
next	O
major	O
breakthrough	O
in	O
the	O
history	O
of	O
virtual	B-Application
worlds	I-Application
was	O
the	O
graphical	O
user	O
interface	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Lucasfilm	B-Application
's	I-Application
Habitat	I-Application
(	O
1986	O
)	O
,	O
was	O
one	O
of	O
the	O
first	O
virtual	B-Application
worlds	I-Application
that	O
was	O
graphically	O
based	O
,	O
albeit	O
only	O
in	O
a	O
two-dimensional	O
environment	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Three-dimensional	O
virtual	B-Application
worlds	I-Application
such	O
as	O
Traveler	O
and	O
Active	B-Protocol
Worlds	I-Protocol
,	O
both	O
of	O
which	O
appeared	O
in	O
the	O
1990s	O
,	O
were	O
the	O
next	O
important	O
development	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Svensson	O
(	O
2003	O
)	O
describes	O
the	O
Virtual	O
Wedding	O
Project	O
,	O
in	O
which	O
advanced	O
students	O
of	O
English	O
made	O
use	O
of	O
Active	B-Protocol
Worlds	I-Protocol
as	O
an	O
arena	O
for	O
constructivist	O
learning	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
3D	O
world	O
of	O
Second	B-Application
Life	I-Application
was	O
launched	O
in	O
2003	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Walker	O
,	O
Davies	O
&	O
Hewer	O
(	O
2011	O
:	O
Section	O
14.2.1	O
)	O
and	O
Molka-Danielsen	O
&	O
Deutschmann	O
(	O
2010	O
)	O
describe	O
a	O
number	O
of	O
experiments	O
and	O
projects	O
that	O
focus	O
on	O
language	O
learning	O
in	O
Second	B-Application
Life	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
See	O
also	O
the	O
Wikipedia	O
article	O
Virtual	B-Protocol
world	I-Protocol
language	I-Protocol
learning	I-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
To	O
what	O
extent	O
Second	B-Application
Life	I-Application
and	O
other	O
virtual	B-Application
worlds	I-Application
will	O
become	O
established	O
as	O
important	O
tools	O
for	O
teachers	O
of	O
foreign	O
languages	O
remains	O
to	O
be	O
seen	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
has	O
been	O
argued	O
by	O
Dudeney	O
(	O
2010	O
)	O
in	O
his	O
That	O
's	O
Life	O
blog	O
that	O
Second	B-Application
Life	I-Application
is	O
"	O
too	O
demanding	O
and	O
too	O
unreliable	O
for	O
most	O
educators	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Regardless	O
of	O
the	O
pros	O
and	O
cons	O
of	O
Second	B-Application
Life	I-Application
,	O
language	O
teachers	O
 '	O
interest	O
in	O
virtual	B-Application
worlds	I-Application
continues	O
to	O
grow	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
joint	O
EUROCALL/CALICO	O
Virtual	B-Application
Worlds	I-Application
Special	O
Interest	O
Group	O
was	O
set	O
up	O
in	O
2009	O
,	O
and	O
there	O
are	O
now	O
many	O
areas	O
in	O
Second	B-Application
Life	I-Application
that	O
are	O
dedicated	O
to	O
language	O
learning	O
and	O
teaching	O
,	O
for	O
example	O
the	O
commercial	O
area	O
for	O
learners	O
of	O
English	O
,	O
which	O
is	O
managed	O
by	O
Language	O
Lab	O
,	O
and	O
free	O
areas	O
such	O
as	O
the	O
region	O
maintained	O
by	O
the	O
Goethe-Institut	O
and	O
the	O
EduNation	O
Islands	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
NIFLAR	O
is	O
implemented	O
both	O
in	O
Second	B-Application
Life	I-Application
and	O
in	O
Opensim	B-Protocol
.	O
</s>
<s>
Human	O
language	O
technologies	O
are	O
areas	O
of	O
activity	O
in	O
departments	O
of	O
the	O
European	O
Commission	O
that	O
were	O
formerly	O
grouped	O
under	O
the	O
heading	O
language	B-General_Concept
engineering	I-General_Concept
(	O
Gupta	O
&	O
Schulze	O
2011	O
:	O
Section	O
1.1	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
parts	O
of	O
HLT	O
that	O
is	O
of	O
greatest	O
interest	O
to	O
the	O
language	O
teacher	O
is	O
natural	B-Language
language	I-Language
processing	I-Language
(	O
NLP	B-Language
)	O
,	O
especially	O
parsing	B-Language
,	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
the	O
areas	O
of	O
speech	B-Application
synthesis	I-Application
and	O
speech	B-Application
recognition	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Speech	B-Application
synthesis	I-Application
has	O
improved	O
immeasurably	O
in	O
recent	O
years	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
At	O
word	O
level	O
,	O
speech	B-Application
synthesis	I-Application
is	O
quite	O
effective	O
,	O
the	O
artificial	O
voice	O
often	O
closely	O
resembling	O
a	O
human	O
voice	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Speech	B-Application
synthesis	I-Application
as	O
embodied	O
in	O
text	B-Application
to	I-Application
speech	I-Application
(	O
TTS	O
)	O
applications	O
is	O
invaluable	O
as	O
a	O
tool	O
for	O
unsighted	O
or	O
partially	O
sighted	O
people	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Gupta	O
&	O
Schulze	O
(	O
2010	O
:	O
Section	O
4.1	O
)	O
list	O
several	O
examples	O
of	O
speech	B-Application
synthesis	I-Application
applications	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Speech	B-Application
recognition	I-Application
is	O
less	O
advanced	O
than	O
speech	B-Application
synthesis	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
It	O
has	O
been	O
used	O
in	O
a	O
number	O
of	O
CALL	O
programs	O
,	O
in	O
which	O
it	O
is	O
usually	O
described	O
as	O
automatic	B-Application
speech	I-Application
recognition	I-Application
(	O
ASR	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
despite	O
these	O
differences	O
,	O
the	O
core	O
problem	O
of	O
speech	B-Application
recognition	I-Application
is	O
the	O
same	O
for	O
both	O
humans	O
and	O
machines	O
:	O
namely	O
,	O
of	O
finding	O
the	O
best	O
match	O
between	O
a	O
given	O
speech	O
sound	O
and	O
its	O
corresponding	O
word	O
string	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Automatic	B-Application
speech	I-Application
recognition	I-Application
technology	O
attempts	O
to	O
simulate	O
and	O
optimize	O
this	O
process	O
computationally.	O
"	O
</s>
<s>
Parsing	B-Language
is	O
used	O
in	O
a	O
number	O
of	O
ways	O
in	O
CALL	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Gupta	O
&	O
Schulze	O
(	O
2010	O
:	O
Section	O
5	O
)	O
describe	O
how	O
parsing	B-Language
may	O
be	O
used	O
to	O
analyse	O
sentences	O
,	O
presenting	O
the	O
learner	O
with	O
a	O
tree	O
diagram	O
that	O
labels	O
the	O
constituent	O
parts	O
of	O
speech	O
of	O
a	O
sentence	O
and	O
shows	O
the	O
learner	O
how	O
the	O
sentence	O
is	O
structured	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Parsing	B-Language
is	O
also	O
used	O
in	O
CALL	O
programs	O
to	O
analyse	O
the	O
learner	O
's	O
input	O
and	O
diagnose	O
errors	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Natural	B-Language
Language	I-Language
Processing	I-Language
(	O
NLP	B-Language
)	O
and	O
Human	O
Language	O
Technologies	O
(	O
HLT	O
)	O
,	O
tend	O
to	O
be	O
more	O
optimistic	O
about	O
the	O
potential	O
of	O
error	O
analysis	O
by	O
computer	O
than	O
those	O
who	O
come	O
into	O
CALL	O
via	O
language	O
teaching	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
 [ ... ] 	O
An	O
alternative	O
approach	O
is	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
Artificial	O
Intelligence	O
(	O
AI	O
)	O
techniques	O
to	O
parse	B-Language
the	O
learner	O
's	O
response	O
–	O
so-called	O
intelligent	O
CALL	O
(	O
ICALL	O
)	O
–	O
but	O
there	O
is	O
a	O
gulf	O
between	O
those	O
who	O
favour	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
AI	O
to	O
develop	O
CALL	O
programs	O
(	O
Matthews	O
1994	O
)	O
and	O
,	O
at	O
the	O
other	O
extreme	O
,	O
those	O
who	O
perceive	O
this	O
approach	O
as	O
a	O
threat	O
to	O
humanity	O
(	O
Last	O
1989:153	O
)	O
"	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Research	O
into	O
speech	B-Application
synthesis	I-Application
,	O
speech	B-Application
recognition	I-Application
and	O
parsing	B-Language
and	O
how	O
these	O
areas	O
of	O
NLP	B-Language
can	O
be	O
used	O
in	O
CALL	O
are	O
the	O
main	O
focus	O
of	O
the	O
NLP	B-Language
Special	O
Interest	O
Group	O
within	O
the	O
EUROCALL	O
professional	O
association	O
and	O
the	O
ICALL	O
Special	O
Interest	O
Group	O
within	O
the	O
CALICO	O
professional	O
association	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
EUROCALL	O
NLP	B-Language
SIG	O
also	O
maintains	O
a	O
Ning	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Impact	O
may	O
be	O
measured	O
quantitatively	O
and	O
qualitatively	O
in	O
terms	O
of	O
the	O
uptake	O
and	O
use	O
of	O
ICT	B-General_Concept
in	O
teaching	O
foreign	O
languages	O
,	O
issues	O
of	O
availability	O
of	O
hardware	O
and	O
software	O
,	O
budgetary	O
considerations	O
,	O
Internet	O
access	O
,	O
teachers	O
 '	O
and	O
learners	O
 '	O
attitudes	O
to	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
CALL	O
,	O
changes	O
in	O
the	O
ways	O
in	O
which	O
languages	O
are	O
learnt	O
and	O
taught	O
,	O
and	O
paradigm	O
shifts	O
in	O
teachers	O
 '	O
and	O
learners	O
 '	O
roles	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Effectiveness	O
,	O
on	O
the	O
other	O
hand	O
,	O
usually	O
focuses	O
on	O
assessing	O
to	O
what	O
extent	O
ICT	B-General_Concept
is	O
a	O
more	O
effective	O
way	O
of	O
teaching	O
foreign	O
languages	O
compared	O
to	O
using	O
traditional	O
methods	O
–	O
and	O
this	O
is	O
more	O
problematic	O
as	O
so	O
many	O
variables	O
come	O
into	O
play	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Warschauer	O
's	O
high	O
expectations	O
in	O
1996	O
have	O
still	O
not	O
been	O
fulfilled	O
,	O
and	O
currently	O
there	O
is	O
an	O
increasing	O
tendency	O
for	O
teachers	O
to	O
go	O
down	O
the	O
route	O
proposed	O
by	O
Jones	O
,	O
making	O
use	O
of	O
a	O
variety	O
of	O
new	O
tools	O
such	O
as	O
corpora	O
and	O
concordancers	O
,	O
interactive	B-Application
whiteboards	I-Application
and	O
applications	O
for	O
online	O
communication	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
the	O
advent	B-Application
of	O
the	O
Web	O
there	O
has	O
been	O
an	O
explosion	O
in	O
online	O
learning	O
,	O
but	O
to	O
what	O
extent	O
it	O
is	O
effective	O
is	O
open	O
to	O
criticism	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
:	O
The	O
Asia-Pacific	O
Association	O
for	O
Computer-Assisted	B-Application
Language	I-Application
Learning	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
:	O
The	O
Asia	O
Association	O
of	O
Computer	B-Application
Assisted	I-Application
Language	I-Application
Learning	I-Application
,	O
Korea	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
IndiaCALL:The	O
India	O
Association	O
of	O
Computer	B-Application
Assisted	I-Application
Language	I-Application
Learning	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
PacCALL	O
:	O
The	O
Pacific	O
Association	O
for	O
Computer	B-Application
Assisted	I-Application
Language	I-Application
Learning	I-Application
,	O
promoting	O
CALL	O
in	O
the	O
Pacific	O
,	O
from	O
East	O
to	O
Southeast	O
Asia	O
,	O
Oceania	O
,	O
across	O
to	O
the	O
Americas	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Organises	O
the	O
Globalization	O
and	O
Localization	O
in	O
Computer-Assisted	B-Application
Language	I-Application
Learning	I-Application
(	O
GLoCALL	O
)	O
conference	O
jointly	O
with	O
APACALL	O
.	O
</s>
