<s>
A	O
cognitive	B-Application
tutor	I-Application
is	O
a	O
particular	O
kind	O
of	O
intelligent	O
tutoring	O
system	O
that	O
utilizes	O
a	O
cognitive	O
model	O
to	O
provide	O
feedback	O
to	O
students	O
as	O
they	O
are	O
working	O
through	O
problems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
feedback	O
will	O
immediately	O
inform	O
students	O
of	O
the	O
correctness	O
,	O
or	O
incorrectness	O
,	O
of	O
their	O
actions	O
in	O
the	O
tutor	O
interface	O
;	O
however	O
,	O
cognitive	B-Application
tutors	I-Application
also	O
have	O
the	O
ability	O
to	O
provide	O
context-sensitive	O
hints	O
and	O
instruction	O
to	O
guide	O
students	O
towards	O
reasonable	O
next	O
steps	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
name	O
of	O
Cognitive	O
Tutor®	O
now	O
usually	O
refers	O
to	O
a	O
particular	O
type	O
of	O
intelligent	O
tutoring	O
system	O
produced	O
by	O
Carnegie	O
Learning	O
for	O
high	O
school	O
mathematics	O
based	O
on	O
John	O
Anderson	O
's	O
ACT-R	B-Language
theory	I-Language
of	O
human	O
cognition	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
cognitive	B-Application
tutors	I-Application
were	O
originally	O
developed	O
to	O
test	O
ACT-R	B-Language
theory	I-Language
for	O
research	O
purposes	O
since	O
the	O
early	O
1980s	O
and	O
they	O
are	O
developed	O
also	O
for	O
other	O
areas	O
and	O
subjects	O
such	O
as	O
computer	O
programming	O
and	O
science	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Cognitive	B-Application
Tutors	I-Application
can	O
be	O
implemented	O
into	O
classrooms	O
as	O
a	O
part	O
of	O
blended	O
learning	O
that	O
combines	O
textbook	O
and	O
software	O
activities	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Cognitive	B-Application
Tutor	I-Application
programs	O
utilize	O
cognitive	O
model	O
and	O
are	O
based	O
on	O
model	O
tracing	O
and	O
knowledge	O
tracing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Model	O
tracing	O
means	O
that	O
the	O
cognitive	B-Application
tutor	I-Application
checks	O
every	O
action	O
performed	O
by	O
students	O
such	O
as	O
entering	O
a	O
value	O
or	O
clicking	O
a	O
button	O
,	O
while	O
knowledge	O
tracing	O
is	O
used	O
to	O
calculate	O
the	O
required	O
skills	O
students	O
learned	O
by	O
measuring	O
them	O
on	O
a	O
bar	O
chart	O
called	O
Skillometer	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
report	O
identified	O
27	O
studies	O
that	O
investigate	O
the	O
effectiveness	O
of	O
Cognitive	B-Application
Tutor	I-Application
®	O
,	O
and	O
the	O
conclusion	O
is	O
based	O
on	O
6	O
studies	O
that	O
meet	O
What	O
Works	O
Clearinghouse	O
standards	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
tutoring	O
system	O
adopting	O
a	O
cognitive	O
model	O
is	O
called	O
a	O
cognitive	B-Application
tutor	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Cognitive	B-Application
Tutors	I-Application
provide	O
step-by-step	O
guidance	O
as	O
a	O
learner	O
develops	O
a	O
complex	O
problem-solving	O
skill	O
through	O
practice	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Typically	O
,	O
cognitive	B-Application
tutors	I-Application
provide	O
such	O
forms	O
of	O
support	O
as	O
:	O
(	O
a	O
)	O
a	O
problem-solving	O
environment	O
that	O
is	O
designed	O
rich	O
and	O
"	O
thinking	O
visible	O
"	O
;	O
(	O
b	O
)	O
step-by-step	O
feedback	O
on	O
student	O
performance	O
;	O
(	O
c	O
)	O
feedback	O
messages	O
specific	O
to	O
errors	O
;	O
(	O
d	O
)	O
context-specific	O
next-step	O
hints	O
at	O
student	O
's	O
request	O
,	O
and	O
(	O
e	O
)	O
individualized	O
problem	O
selection	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Cognitive	B-Application
Tutors	I-Application
accomplish	O
two	O
of	O
the	O
principal	O
tasks	O
characteristic	O
of	O
human	O
tutoring	O
:	O
(	O
1	O
)	O
monitors	O
the	O
student	O
's	O
performance	O
and	O
providing	O
context-specific	O
individual	O
instruction	O
,	O
and	O
(	O
2	O
)	O
monitors	O
the	O
student	O
's	O
learning	O
and	O
selects	O
appropriate	O
problem-solving	O
activities	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
model	O
tracing	O
,	O
the	O
cognitive	B-Application
tutor	I-Application
uses	O
the	O
cognitive	O
model	O
in	O
complex	O
problems	O
to	O
follow	O
the	O
student	O
's	O
individual	O
path	O
and	O
provide	O
prompt	O
accuracy	O
feedback	O
and	O
context-specific	O
advice	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
In	O
knowledge	O
tracing	O
,	O
the	O
cognitive	B-Application
tutor	I-Application
uses	O
a	O
simple	O
Bayesian	B-General_Concept
method	O
of	O
evaluating	O
the	O
student	O
's	O
knowledge	O
and	O
uses	O
this	O
student	O
model	O
to	O
select	O
appropriate	O
problems	O
for	O
individual	O
student	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Cognitive	B-Application
tutor	I-Application
development	O
is	O
guided	O
by	O
ACT-R	B-Language
cognitive	B-Architecture
architecture	I-Architecture
,	O
which	O
specifies	O
the	O
underlying	O
framework	O
developing	O
the	O
cognitive	O
model	O
or	O
expert	O
component	O
of	O
a	O
cognitive	B-Application
tutor	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
ACT-R	B-Language
,	O
a	O
member	O
of	O
the	O
ACT	B-Language
family	O
,	O
is	O
the	O
most	O
recent	O
cognitive	B-Architecture
architecture	I-Architecture
,	O
devoted	O
primarily	O
to	O
modelling	O
human	O
behavior	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ACT-R	B-Language
includes	O
a	O
declarative	O
memory	O
of	O
factual	O
knowledge	O
and	O
a	O
procedural	O
memory	O
of	O
production	O
rules	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ACT-R	B-Language
has	O
been	O
used	O
to	O
model	O
psychological	O
aspects	O
such	O
as	O
memory	O
,	O
attention	O
,	O
reasoning	O
,	O
problem	O
solving	O
,	O
and	O
language	O
processing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
first	O
real	O
world	O
applications	O
of	O
cognitive	B-Application
tutors	I-Application
were	O
a	O
geometry	O
proof	O
tutor	O
used	O
by	O
high	O
school	O
students	O
and	O
a	O
mini	O
course	O
in	O
Computer	O
Science	O
at	O
Carnegie	O
Mellon	O
University	O
using	O
the	O
LISP	O
tutor	O
with	O
college	O
students	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Since	O
then	O
,	O
cognitive	B-Application
tutors	I-Application
have	O
been	O
used	O
in	O
a	O
variety	O
of	O
scenarios	O
,	O
with	O
a	O
few	O
organizations	O
developing	O
their	O
own	O
cognitive	B-Application
tutor	I-Application
programs	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
PACT	O
's	O
most	O
successful	O
product	O
was	O
the	O
Cognitive	B-Application
Tutor	I-Application
Algebra	O
course	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
Carnegie	O
Mellon	O
Cognitive	B-Application
Tutor	I-Application
has	O
been	O
shown	O
to	O
raise	O
students	O
 '	O
math	O
test	O
scores	O
in	O
high	O
school	O
and	O
middle-school	O
classrooms	O
,	O
and	O
their	O
Algebra	O
course	O
was	O
designated	O
one	O
of	O
five	O
exemplary	O
curricula	O
for	O
K-12	O
mathematics	O
educated	O
by	O
the	O
US	O
Department	O
of	O
Education	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
were	O
several	O
research	O
projects	O
conducted	O
by	O
the	O
PACT	O
Center	O
to	O
utilize	O
Cognitive	B-Application
tutor	I-Application
for	O
courses	O
in	O
Excel	O
and	O
to	O
develop	O
an	O
intelligent	O
tutoring	O
system	O
for	O
algebra	O
expression	O
writing	O
,	O
called	O
Ms.	O
Lindquist	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Cognitive	B-Application
tutors	I-Application
can	O
understand	O
the	O
many	O
ways	O
that	O
a	O
student	O
might	O
answer	O
a	O
problem	O
,	O
and	O
then	O
assist	O
the	O
student	O
at	O
the	O
exact	O
time	O
that	O
the	O
help	O
is	O
required	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Further	O
,	O
the	O
cognitive	B-Application
tutor	I-Application
can	O
customize	O
exercises	O
specific	O
to	O
the	O
student	O
's	O
needs	O
.	O
</s>
