<s>
Numerical	O
climate	B-Application
models	I-Application
use	O
quantitative	O
methods	O
to	O
simulate	O
the	O
interactions	O
of	O
the	O
important	O
drivers	O
of	O
climate	O
,	O
including	O
atmosphere	O
,	O
oceans	O
,	O
land	O
surface	O
and	O
ice	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Climate	B-Application
models	I-Application
may	O
also	O
be	O
qualitative	O
(	O
i.e.	O
</s>
<s>
Quantitative	O
climate	B-Application
models	I-Application
take	O
account	O
of	O
incoming	O
energy	O
from	O
the	O
sun	O
as	O
short	O
wave	O
electromagnetic	O
radiation	O
,	O
chiefly	O
visible	O
and	O
short-wave	O
(	O
near	O
)	O
infrared	O
,	O
as	O
well	O
as	O
outgoing	O
long	O
wave	O
(	O
far	O
)	O
infrared	O
electromagnetic	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Coupled	O
atmosphere	O
–	O
ocean	O
–	O
sea	O
ice	O
global	B-Application
climate	I-Application
models	I-Application
solve	O
the	O
full	O
equations	O
for	O
mass	O
and	O
energy	O
transfer	O
and	O
radiant	O
exchange	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Box	O
models	O
are	O
simplified	O
versions	O
of	O
complex	O
systems	O
,	O
reducing	O
them	O
to	O
boxes	O
(	O
or	O
reservoirs	O
)	O
linked	O
by	O
fluxes	B-General_Concept
.	O
</s>
<s>
Effect	O
of	O
ice-albedo	O
feedback	O
on	O
global	O
sensitivity	O
in	O
a	O
one-dimensional	O
radiative-convective	O
climate	B-Application
model	I-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Depending	O
on	O
the	O
nature	O
of	O
questions	O
asked	O
and	O
the	O
pertinent	O
time	O
scales	O
,	O
there	O
are	O
,	O
on	O
the	O
one	O
extreme	O
,	O
conceptual	O
,	O
more	O
inductive	O
models	O
,	O
and	O
,	O
on	O
the	O
other	O
extreme	O
,	O
general	B-Application
circulation	I-Application
models	I-Application
operating	O
at	O
the	O
highest	O
spatial	O
and	O
temporal	O
resolution	O
currently	O
feasible	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
General	B-Application
Circulation	I-Application
Models	I-Application
(	O
GCMs	O
)	O
discretise	O
the	O
equations	O
for	O
fluid	O
motion	O
and	O
energy	O
transfer	O
and	O
integrate	O
these	O
over	O
time	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Atmospheric	O
GCMs	O
(	O
AGCMs	B-Application
)	O
model	O
the	O
atmosphere	O
and	O
impose	O
sea	O
surface	O
temperatures	O
as	O
boundary	O
conditions	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Coupled	O
atmosphere-ocean	O
GCMs	O
(	O
AOGCMs	B-Application
,	O
e.g.	O
</s>
<s>
HadCM3	B-Application
,	O
EdGCM	O
,	O
GFDL	B-Application
CM2.X	I-Application
,	O
ARPEGE-Climat	O
)	O
combine	O
the	O
two	O
models	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
first	O
general	O
circulation	O
climate	B-Application
model	I-Application
that	O
combined	O
both	O
oceanic	O
and	O
atmospheric	O
processes	O
was	O
developed	O
in	O
the	O
late	O
1960s	O
at	O
the	O
NOAA	O
Geophysical	O
Fluid	O
Dynamics	O
Laboratory	O
AOGCMs	B-Application
represent	O
the	O
pinnacle	O
of	O
complexity	O
in	O
climate	B-Application
models	I-Application
and	O
internalise	O
as	O
many	O
processes	O
as	O
possible	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
three	O
major	O
types	O
of	O
institution	O
where	O
climate	B-Application
models	I-Application
are	O
developed	O
,	O
implemented	O
and	O
used	O
:	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
World	O
Climate	O
Research	O
Programme	O
(	O
WCRP	O
)	O
,	O
hosted	O
by	O
the	O
World	O
Meteorological	O
Organization	O
(	O
WMO	O
)	O
,	O
coordinates	O
research	O
activities	O
on	O
climate	B-Application
modelling	I-Application
worldwide	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
2012	O
U.S.	O
National	O
Research	O
Council	O
report	O
discussed	O
how	O
the	O
large	O
and	O
diverse	O
U.S.	O
climate	B-Application
modeling	I-Application
enterprise	O
could	O
evolve	O
to	O
become	O
more	O
unified	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Efficiencies	O
could	O
be	O
gained	O
by	O
developing	O
a	O
common	O
software	O
infrastructure	O
shared	O
by	O
all	O
U.S.	O
climate	O
researchers	O
,	O
and	O
holding	O
an	O
annual	O
climate	B-Application
modeling	I-Application
forum	O
,	O
the	O
report	O
found	O
.	O
</s>
