<s>
Automated	B-General_Concept
decision-making	I-General_Concept
(	O
ADM	O
)	O
involves	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
data	O
,	O
machines	O
and	O
algorithms	O
to	O
make	O
decisions	O
in	O
a	O
range	O
of	O
contexts	O
,	O
including	O
public	B-Application
administration	I-Application
,	O
business	O
,	O
health	O
,	O
education	O
,	O
law	O
,	O
employment	O
,	O
transport	O
,	O
media	O
and	O
entertainment	O
,	O
with	O
varying	O
degrees	O
of	O
human	O
oversight	O
or	O
intervention	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ADM	O
involves	O
large-scale	O
data	O
from	O
a	O
range	O
of	O
sources	O
,	O
such	O
as	O
databases	O
,	O
text	O
,	O
social	O
media	O
,	O
sensors	O
,	O
images	O
or	O
speech	O
,	O
that	O
is	O
processed	O
using	O
various	O
technologies	O
including	O
computer	O
software	O
,	O
algorithms	O
,	O
machine	O
learning	O
,	O
natural	B-Language
language	I-Language
processing	I-Language
,	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
,	O
augmented	O
intelligence	O
and	O
robotics	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
increasing	O
use	O
of	O
automated	B-General_Concept
decision-making	I-General_Concept
systems	O
(	O
ADMS	O
)	O
across	O
a	O
range	O
of	O
contexts	O
presents	O
many	O
benefits	O
and	O
challenges	O
to	O
human	O
society	O
requiring	O
consideration	O
of	O
the	O
technical	O
,	O
legal	O
,	O
ethical	O
,	O
societal	O
,	O
educational	O
,	O
economic	O
and	O
health	O
consequences	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
However	O
,	O
ADM	O
technologies	O
and	O
applications	O
can	O
take	O
many	O
forms	O
ranging	O
from	O
decision-support	B-Application
systems	O
that	O
make	O
recommendations	O
for	O
human	O
decision-makers	O
to	O
act	O
on	O
,	O
sometimes	O
known	O
as	O
augmented	O
intelligence	O
or	O
'	O
shared	O
decision-making	O
'	O
,	O
to	O
fully	O
automated	B-General_Concept
decision-making	I-General_Concept
processes	O
that	O
make	O
decisions	O
on	O
behalf	O
of	O
individuals	O
or	O
organizations	O
without	O
human	O
involvement	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Models	O
used	O
in	O
automated	B-General_Concept
decision-making	I-General_Concept
systems	O
can	O
be	O
as	O
simple	O
as	O
checklists	O
and	O
decision	B-Algorithm
trees	I-Algorithm
through	O
to	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
and	O
deep	O
neural	B-Architecture
networks	I-Architecture
(	O
DNN	O
)	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Automated	B-General_Concept
decision-making	I-General_Concept
involves	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
data	O
as	O
an	O
input	O
,	O
either	O
to	O
be	O
analysed	O
within	O
a	O
process	O
,	O
model	O
or	O
algorithm	O
,	O
or	O
for	O
learning	O
and	O
generating	O
new	O
models	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
ADM	O
systems	O
may	O
use	O
and	O
connect	O
a	O
wide	O
range	O
of	O
data	O
types	O
and	O
sources	O
depending	O
on	O
the	O
goals	O
and	O
contexts	O
of	O
the	O
system	O
,	O
for	O
example	O
sensor	O
data	O
for	O
self-driving	O
cars	O
and	O
robotics	O
,	O
identity	O
data	O
for	O
security	O
systems	O
,	O
demographic	O
and	O
financial	O
data	O
for	O
public	B-Application
administration	I-Application
,	O
medical	O
records	O
in	O
health	O
,	O
criminal	O
records	O
in	O
law	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Automated	B-General_Concept
decision-making	I-General_Concept
technologies	O
(	O
ADMT	O
)	O
are	O
software-coded	O
digital	O
tools	O
that	O
automate	O
the	O
translation	O
of	O
input	O
data	O
to	O
output	O
data	O
,	O
contributing	O
to	O
the	O
function	O
of	O
automated	B-General_Concept
decision-making	I-General_Concept
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
While	O
machine	O
learning	O
has	O
been	O
around	O
for	O
some	O
time	O
,	O
it	O
is	O
becoming	O
increasingly	O
powerful	O
due	O
to	O
recent	O
breakthroughs	O
in	O
training	O
deep	O
neural	B-Architecture
networks	I-Architecture
(	O
DNNs	O
)	O
,	O
and	O
dramatic	O
increases	O
in	O
data	O
storage	O
capacity	O
and	O
computational	O
power	O
with	O
GPU	O
coprocessors	O
and	O
cloud	O
computing	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Machine	O
learning	O
systems	O
based	O
on	O
foundation	O
models	O
run	O
on	O
deep	O
neural	B-Architecture
networks	I-Architecture
and	O
use	O
pattern	O
matching	O
to	O
train	O
a	O
single	O
huge	O
system	O
on	O
large	O
amounts	O
of	O
general	O
data	O
such	O
as	O
text	O
and	O
images	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Examples	O
of	O
these	O
technologies	O
include	O
Open	O
AI	B-Application
's	O
DALL-E	B-General_Concept
,	O
an	O
image	O
creation	O
program	O
and	O
GPT	B-Language
language	O
model	O
,	O
and	O
Google	O
's	O
PaLM	O
language	O
model	O
program	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Automated	B-Algorithm
trading	I-Algorithm
systems	I-Algorithm
use	O
computer	O
programs	O
to	O
create	O
buy	O
and	O
sell	O
orders	O
and	O
automatically	O
submit	O
the	O
orders	O
to	O
market	O
centers	O
or	O
exchanges	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
As	O
artificial	B-Application
intelligence	I-Application
and	O
machine	O
learning	O
continue	O
to	O
advance	O
,	O
accountants	O
and	O
auditors	O
may	O
make	O
use	O
of	O
increasingly	O
sophisticated	O
algorithms	O
which	O
make	O
decisions	O
such	O
as	O
those	O
involving	O
determining	O
what	O
is	O
anomalous	O
,	O
whether	O
to	O
notify	O
personnel	O
,	O
and	O
how	O
to	O
prioritize	O
those	O
tasks	O
assigned	O
to	O
personnel	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Digital	O
media	O
,	O
entertainment	O
platforms	O
and	O
information	O
services	O
increasingly	O
provide	O
content	O
to	O
audiences	O
via	O
automated	O
recommender	B-Application
systems	I-Application
based	O
on	O
demographic	O
information	O
,	O
previous	O
selections	O
,	O
collaborative	B-Algorithm
filtering	I-Algorithm
or	O
content-based	O
filtering	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
recommender	B-Application
systems	I-Application
also	O
provide	O
some	O
agency	O
to	O
users	O
in	O
accepting	O
recommendations	O
and	O
incorporate	O
data-driven	O
algorithmic	O
feedback	O
loops	O
based	O
on	O
the	O
actions	O
of	O
the	O
system	O
user	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Deep	O
learning	O
AI	B-Application
image	O
models	O
are	O
being	O
used	O
for	O
reviewing	O
x-rays	O
and	O
detecting	O
the	O
eye	O
condition	O
macular	O
degeneration	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
significant	O
application	O
of	O
ADM	O
in	O
social	O
services	O
relates	O
to	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
predictive	B-General_Concept
analytics	I-General_Concept
–	O
eg	O
predictions	O
of	O
risks	O
to	O
children	O
from	O
abuse/neglect	O
in	O
child	O
protection	O
,	O
predictions	O
of	O
recidivism	O
or	O
crime	O
in	O
policing	O
and	O
criminal	O
justice	O
,	O
predictions	O
of	O
welfare/tax	O
fraud	O
in	O
compliance	O
systems	O
,	O
predictions	O
of	O
long	O
term	O
unemployment	O
in	O
employment	O
services	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Connected	O
and	O
automated	O
mobility	O
(	O
CAM	O
)	O
involves	O
autonomous	O
vehicles	O
such	O
as	O
self-driving	O
cars	O
and	O
other	O
forms	O
of	O
transport	O
which	O
use	O
automated	B-General_Concept
decision-making	I-General_Concept
systems	O
to	O
replace	O
various	O
aspects	O
of	O
human	O
control	O
of	O
the	O
vehicle	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
level	O
of	O
surveillance	O
now	O
possible	O
as	O
a	O
result	O
of	O
automated	O
data	O
collection	O
has	O
been	O
described	O
as	O
surveillance	B-General_Concept
capitalism	I-General_Concept
or	O
surveillance	O
economy	O
to	O
indicate	O
the	O
way	O
digital	O
media	O
involves	O
large-scale	O
tracking	O
and	O
accumulation	O
of	O
data	O
on	O
every	O
interaction	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
There	O
are	O
many	O
social	O
,	O
ethical	O
and	O
legal	O
implications	O
of	O
automated	B-General_Concept
decision-making	I-General_Concept
systems	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
A	O
report	O
from	O
Citizen	O
lab	O
in	O
Canada	O
argues	O
for	O
a	O
critical	O
human	O
rights	O
analysis	O
of	O
the	O
application	O
of	O
ADM	O
in	O
various	O
areas	O
to	O
ensure	O
the	O
use	O
of	O
automated	B-General_Concept
decision-making	I-General_Concept
does	O
not	O
result	O
in	O
infringements	O
on	O
rights	O
,	O
including	O
the	O
rights	O
to	O
equality	O
and	O
non-discrimination	O
;	O
freedom	O
of	O
movement	O
,	O
expression	O
,	O
religion	O
,	O
and	O
association	O
;	O
privacy	O
rights	O
and	O
the	O
rights	O
to	O
life	O
,	O
liberty	O
,	O
and	O
security	O
of	O
the	O
person	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
GDPR	O
also	O
includes	O
some	O
rules	O
on	O
the	O
right	B-Algorithm
to	I-Algorithm
explanation	I-Algorithm
however	O
the	O
exact	O
scope	O
and	O
nature	O
of	O
these	O
is	O
currently	O
subject	O
to	O
pending	O
review	O
by	O
the	O
Court	O
of	O
Justice	O
of	O
the	O
European	O
Union	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Similarly	O
scoped	O
and	O
worded	O
provisions	O
with	O
varying	O
attached	O
rights	O
and	O
obligations	O
are	O
present	O
in	O
the	O
data	O
protection	O
laws	O
of	O
many	O
other	O
jurisdictions	O
across	O
the	O
world	O
,	O
including	O
Uganda	O
,	O
Morocco	O
and	O
the	O
US	O
state	O
of	O
Virginia	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
Rights	O
for	O
the	O
explanation	O
of	O
public	O
sector	O
automated	B-General_Concept
decisions	I-General_Concept
forming	O
'	O
algorithmic	O
treatment	O
 '	O
under	O
the	O
French	O
loi	O
pour	O
une	O
République	O
numérique	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Questions	O
of	O
biased	O
or	O
incorrect	O
data	O
or	O
algorithms	O
and	O
concerns	O
that	O
some	O
ADMs	O
are	O
black	O
box	O
technologies	O
,	O
closed	O
to	O
human	O
scrutiny	O
or	O
interrogation	O
,	O
has	O
led	O
to	O
what	O
is	O
referred	O
to	O
as	O
the	O
issue	O
of	O
explainability	O
,	O
or	O
the	O
right	B-Algorithm
to	I-Algorithm
an	I-Algorithm
explanation	I-Algorithm
of	O
automated	B-General_Concept
decisions	I-General_Concept
and	O
AI	B-Application
.	O
</s>
<s>
This	O
is	O
also	O
known	O
as	O
Explainable	O
AI	B-Application
(	O
XAI	O
)	O
,	O
or	O
Interpretable	O
AI	B-Application
,	O
in	O
which	O
the	O
results	O
of	O
the	O
solution	O
can	O
be	O
analysed	O
and	O
understood	O
by	O
humans	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Automated	B-General_Concept
decision-making	I-General_Concept
may	O
increase	O
the	O
information	O
asymmetry	O
between	O
individuals	O
whose	O
data	O
feeds	O
into	O
the	O
system	O
and	O
the	O
platforms	O
and	O
decision-making	O
systems	O
capable	O
of	O
inferring	O
information	O
from	O
that	O
data	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
Many	O
academic	O
disciplines	O
and	O
fields	O
are	O
increasingly	O
turning	O
their	O
attention	O
to	O
the	O
development	O
,	O
application	O
and	O
implications	O
of	O
ADM	O
including	O
business	O
,	O
computer	O
sciences	O
,	O
human	O
computer	O
interaction	O
(	O
HCI	O
)	O
,	O
law	O
,	O
public	B-Application
administration	I-Application
,	O
and	O
media	O
and	O
communications	O
.	O
</s>
<s>
The	O
ACM	O
Conference	O
on	O
Fairness	O
,	O
Accountability	O
,	O
and	O
Transparency	O
(	O
ACM	O
FAccT	O
)	O
was	O
established	O
in	O
2018	O
to	O
study	O
transparency	O
and	O
explainability	O
in	O
the	O
context	O
of	O
socio-technical	O
systems	O
,	O
many	O
of	O
which	O
include	O
ADM	O
and	O
AI	B-Application
.	O
</s>
